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PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS ON MORINGA OLEIFERA AND AZADRICHTA INDICA LEAVES
ABSTRACT
Studies were conducted to determine the phytochemicasl present in moringa olrifera and Azadrichta indica leaves. Leaves for this work were washed, room dried ground to powder. The ground leave for both sample were soaked in four different solvent; Ethanol, nHexane, Ethyl acetate and water for 24 hours. After the contact elapsed the solvent were filtered to recover the extract. Qualitative analysis was carried out on the extract; the result showed moringa oliefera to contain saponin, flavonoid, tannin, phenol, steroid and glycoside. Azadrichta indica contains; saponin, flavonoid, tannin, Alkaloid, steroid and glycoside. Quantitative anaylsis were jalso carried on the extract and the result showed moringa oliefera and Azadrichta indica to contain in percentage flavonoid 21.8 : 23.80, Alkaloids 5.00 : 8.20, saponin 0.70 : 1.10 , phenol 0.76 : 1.49 , Tannin 0.08 : 0.57 and Glycoside 0.005 : 0.0062 respectively for moringa oliefera and Azadrichta indica. In the qualitative analysis water was the best solvent for extraction and quantitative analysis; flavonoid, alkaloid, tannin, saponin, phenol and glycoside have higher percentage in Azadrichta indica than moringa oleifera.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
From time immemorial, man depended on plants as medicine. From a historical perspective, it is evident that the fascination for plants is as old as mankind itself. The plant kingdom represent a rich store house of organic compounds, many of which have been used for medicinal purposes and could serve as lead for the development of novel agents having good efficacy in various pathological disorders in the coming years.Plants are the richest source of drugs for traditional medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals food supplements, folk medicine, pharmaceutical intermediates and chemical entities for synthetic drugs Hammer et al., 1999. The use of plant product as medicines could be traced as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The earliest mentioned medicinal used plant in Hindu culture is found in Rigveda, which is said to have been written between 45001600 B.C. and is supposed to be the oldest repository human knowledge. The active principle isolated, have provided leads in the development of several life saving drugs, which are in use today Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2002.
The isolated active compounds of the plants are secondary metabolites chemical compound that occur naturally in plant with no nutritional value to human life. These active compounds are generally called phytochemical. These phytochemicals play protective roles in plants, each chemical labeled phytochemical works in different ways, not all are the same for human, and not all come from the same plants. Some have shown more promise than others in fighting disease and illness in humans. There are some basic types of these active compounds that are found in different fruits and vegetables. We have some of them like antioxidants, they are present in onions and some other fruits and tea, they act as preventive measure for premature cell death and some forms of cancer and aging. Isoflavones or plant estrogen; they are found in soy and soy products; they are helpful in the year just before and after menopause. Capsaicin is found in hot pepper and it has been shown to significantly reduce prostate tumors in size, at least in mice. Taking capsaicin on a regular basis by eating spicy foods with hot peppers may prove an excellent preventative agent to prostate cancer and benign growth of prostate Ahmedabad 382 481. This experiment was carried out on moringaoleifera and Azadirachtaindica leaves.
1.2 Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals are nonnutritive plant chemicals which occur naturally in plants that have protective or disease preventive properties. They are nonessential nutrients, meaning that they are not required by the human body for sustaining life. It is wellknown that plant produces these chemicals to protect them but recent research demonstrates that they can also protect humans against diseases. There are more than thousand known phytochemicals. Some of the wellknown phytochemicals are lycopene in tomatoes, isoflavonesin soy and flavanoids in fruits.
1.2.1 Activity of phytochemicals
Antioxidant Most phytochemicals have antioxidant activity and protect our cells against oxidative damage and reduce the risk of developing certain types of cancer. Phytochemicals with antioxidant activity includes:allyl sulfides onions, leeks, and garlic, carotenoids fruits, carrots, flavonoids fruits, vegetables, polyphenols tea, grapes.
Hormonal action Isoflavones, found in soy, imitate human estrogens and help to reduce menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis.Stimulation of enzymes Indoles, which are found in cabbages, stimulate enzymes that make the estrogen less effective and thus couldreduce the risk for breast cancer. Other phytochemicals, which interfere with enzymes, are protease inhibitors soy and beans, terpenes citrus fruits and cherries.
Interference with DNA replication Saponins found in beans interfere with the replication of DNA cell, thereby preventing themultiplication of cancer cells. Capsaicin, found in hot peppers, protects DNA from carcinogens.
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Moringaoleifera and Azadirachtaindica are plantsleave are claimed to have a lot of economic value such as medicinal, nutritional and pesticidal values. These claims have not been clearly justified.This research and experiment is therefore centered on investigating, analyzing and justifying the claims made on these plants leave. And also to know the chemical composition responsible for the Medicinal value of these plant leave.
1.4 AIM/OBJECTIVE OF PHYTOCHEMICAL
i. Phytochemical anaylsis on the Moringaoleiferaand Azadiractaindica. In the other words, identify, isolate and quantify each phytochemical present in the plant material
ii. To describe clearly the unit operation Extraction process used on these plant.
1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY
To justify the claims made on these plants for its medicinal and economic values like moringaoleifera is responsible for curing malaria, reducing high blood pressure and reduces blood sugar and Azadirachtaindica is responsible curing fever,malaria, bacteria and fungi disease.
1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY
The phytochemical analysis will be carried out only on the leaves of the plant under study.
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| Name | PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS ON MORINGA OLEIFERA AND AZADRICHTA INDICA LEAVES remove | EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON OIL YIELD USING SCENT BEAN SEED ('OZAKI') remove | GENOTOXIC EVALUATION OF ANAMBRA RIVER USING BIOMARKER remove | EFFECTS OF AIR INJECTION STUDIES FOR ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL remove | Effect of particle size on oil yield using scent bean seed (ozaki) remove | Analysis of vegetables oil before and after refining remove |
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| Description | ABSTRACT Studies were conducted to determine the phytochemicasl present in moringa olrifera and Azadrichta indica leaves. Leaves for this work were washed, room dried ground to powder. The ground leave for both sample were soaked in four different solvent; Ethanol, nHexane, Ethyl acetate and water for 24 hours. After the contact elapsed the solvent were filtered to recover the extract. Qualitative analysis was carried out on the extract; the result showed moringa oliefera to contain saponin, flavonoid, tannin, phenol, steroid and glycoside. Azadrichta indica contains; saponin, flavonoid, tannin, Alkaloid, steroid and glycoside. Quantitative anaylsis were jalso carried on the extract and the result showed moringa oliefera and Azadrichta indica to contain in percentage flavonoid 21.8 : 23.80, Alkaloids 5.00 : 8.20, saponin 0.70 : 1.10 , phenol 0.76 : 1.49 , Tannin 0.08 : 0.57 and Glycoside 0.005 : 0.0062 respectively for moringa oliefera and Azadrichta indica. In the qualitative analysis water was the best solvent for extraction and quantitative analysis; flavonoid, alkaloid, tannin, saponin, phenol and glycoside have higher percentage in Azadrichta indica than moringa oleifera. CHAPTER ONE 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY From time immemorial, man depended on plants as medicine. From a historical perspective, it is evident that the fascination for plants is as old as mankind itself. The plant kingdom represent a rich store house of organic compounds, many of which have been used for medicinal purposes and could serve as lead for the development of novel agents having good efficacy in various pathological disorders in the coming years.Plants are the richest source of drugs for traditional medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals food supplements, folk medicine, pharmaceutical intermediates and chemical entities for synthetic drugs Hammer et al., 1999. The use of plant product as medicines could be traced as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The earliest mentioned medicinal used plant in Hindu culture is found in Rigveda, which is said to have been written between 45001600 B.C. and is supposed to be the oldest repository human knowledge. The active principle isolated, have provided leads in the development of several life saving drugs, which are in use today Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2002. The isolated active compounds of the plants are secondary metabolites chemical compound that occur naturally in plant with no nutritional value to human life. These active compounds are generally called phytochemical. These phytochemicals play protective roles in plants, each chemical labeled phytochemical works in different ways, not all are the same for human, and not all come from the same plants. Some have shown more promise than others in fighting disease and illness in humans. There are some basic types of these active compounds that are found in different fruits and vegetables. We have some of them like antioxidants, they are present in onions and some other fruits and tea, they act as preventive measure for premature cell death and some forms of cancer and aging. Isoflavones or plant estrogen; they are found in soy and soy products; they are helpful in the year just before and after menopause. Capsaicin is found in hot pepper and it has been shown to significantly reduce prostate tumors in size, at least in mice. Taking capsaicin on a regular basis by eating spicy foods with hot peppers may prove an excellent preventative agent to prostate cancer and benign growth of prostate Ahmedabad 382 481. This experiment was carried out on moringaoleifera and Azadirachtaindica leaves. 1.2 Phytochemicals Phytochemicals are nonnutritive plant chemicals which occur naturally in plants that have protective or disease preventive properties. They are nonessential nutrients, meaning that they are not required by the human body for sustaining life. It is wellknown that plant produces these chemicals to protect them but recent research demonstrates that they can also protect humans against diseases. There are more than thousand known phytochemicals. Some of the wellknown phytochemicals are lycopene in tomatoes, isoflavonesin soy and flavanoids in fruits. 1.2.1 Activity of phytochemicals Antioxidant Most phytochemicals have antioxidant activity and protect our cells against oxidative damage and reduce the risk of developing certain types of cancer. Phytochemicals with antioxidant activity includes:allyl sulfides onions, leeks, and garlic, carotenoids fruits, carrots, flavonoids fruits, vegetables, polyphenols tea, grapes. Hormonal action Isoflavones, found in soy, imitate human estrogens and help to reduce menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis.Stimulation of enzymes Indoles, which are found in cabbages, stimulate enzymes that make the estrogen less effective and thus couldreduce the risk for breast cancer. Other phytochemicals, which interfere with enzymes, are protease inhibitors soy and beans, terpenes citrus fruits and cherries. Interference with DNA replication Saponins found in beans interfere with the replication of DNA cell, thereby preventing themultiplication of cancer cells. Capsaicin, found in hot peppers, protects DNA from carcinogens. 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Moringaoleifera and Azadirachtaindica are plantsleave are claimed to have a lot of economic value such as medicinal, nutritional and pesticidal values. These claims have not been clearly justified.This research and experiment is therefore centered on investigating, analyzing and justifying the claims made on these plants leave. And also to know the chemical composition responsible for the Medicinal value of these plant leave. 1.4 AIM/OBJECTIVE OF PHYTOCHEMICAL i. Phytochemical anaylsis on the Moringaoleiferaand Azadiractaindica. In the other words, identify, isolate and quantify each phytochemical present in the plant material ii. To describe clearly the unit operation Extraction process used on these plant. 1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY To justify the claims made on these plants for its medicinal and economic values like moringaoleifera is responsible for curing malaria, reducing high blood pressure and reduces blood sugar and Azadirachtaindica is responsible curing fever,malaria, bacteria and fungi disease. 1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY The phytochemical analysis will be carried out only on the leaves of the plant under study. | ABSTRACT This project was done to extract and characterize bean oil according to their particle sizes. The experiment was carried out using scent bean i.e. Ozaki, Ijilizior Azamu as sample. The oils were extracted by solvent extraction /leaching extraction using nhexane. Proximate analysis was carried out to obtain percentage moisture content, ash content, total oil content, protein content and carbohydrate content of the extracted oils. From observation, it was noticed that as the diameter of the sieve decreased, the quantity of oil obtained increased. CHAPTER ONE 1.0. INTRODUCTION 1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY There has been an increase in the world production of oilseeds over the last thirty years Murphy, 1994; this would appear to be related to the increasing demand for oilseed products and byproducts as oilseeds are primarily grown for their oil and meal. Oils from most edible oilseeds are used in the food industry, though there is growing emphasis on industrial utilization as feedstock for several industries with about 80 of the world production of vegetable oils for human consumption. The remaining 20 utilization is between animal and chemical industries Murphy, 1994. According to Rajagopal et al. 2005, biooils from oilseeds are used as Straight Vegetable Oil SVO or as biodiesel trans esterified oil depending on type of engine and level of blend of the oil; scent bean oil i.e. Ozaki, Ijiliji, or Azamu is found mainly in the SouthEast of Nigeria and is not an exception. This phenomenon has created a school of thought that it is better to use oilseeds as biofuel, which will lessen the competition for fossil fuels, which are not renewable. Fossil fuels are not only costly in terms of price but are also costly to the environment as they degrade land, pollute water and cause a general destabilization of the ecosystem with global warming as an end result. Furthermore, crude oil wields sociopolitical power that often dictates the pace of economic growth in specific locations, especially nonoil producing nations. 1.2. Problem Statement Many plants have been identified as sources of oil, with some of the plant species and their oil extracted and used as medicines and food. However, very few of these species have their oil characteristics determined. Because of the high demand of oils for various purposes including medicinal, perfumery, soap making, insecticides et al. Imported oils are very expensive to meet the demands of our local consumer industries; therefore, it becomes necessary to source and synthesize these oils locally. Since these oils can be produced locally, it gives no reason for their importation or at least should reduce the rate at which these oils are imported and give attention to local production. 1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study is to a. Find the percentage composition of oil in the bean seed b. To determine the effect of particle size on the yield of the oil. 1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Exploitation of fruits and seeds as a source of oil can help to reduce oil costs by diversifying the sources for this commodity. Data generated from this study will benefit industries for production of oils for various purposes. In addition the content and composition of fatty acids of plant seed oils can serve as plants taxonomic markers. 1.5. JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH Some factors and benefits of bean Ozaki, Ijiliji or Azamu oil make the research worthwhile; 1 The bean is readily available. 2 Oil from this particular bean is medicinal and applicable in pharmaceutical industries. 3 Small scale industries coming up as a result of oil extraction can reduce unemployment. 4 It can attract foreign exchange earnings for Nigeria. | ||||
| Content |
ABSTRACT
Genotoxicity of freshwater fish in Anambra River was studied by micronucleus MN assay, and the resultant micronucleus indices were used as biomarkers to estimate and predict pollution profile and possible danger of feeding on the aquatic species. The micronucleus profiles of the fish were measured from gill and kidney erythrocytes using microscopic technique. Season, breed, and location effects on micronucleus indices, together with their interactions, and the correlation between the pollutants in fish, water ecosystem, and the micronucleus profiles were also studied. Two major seasons Rainy and Dry and preponderant fish breeds in the river Synodontis clarias Linnaeus, 1758 and Tilapia nilotica Linnaeus, 1757 were studied at five distinct locations that displayed differential environmental stresses. The study revealed that the micronucleus index of fish is an excellent biomarker for measuring the level of pollution in a freshwater habitat. This is more evident with regard to zinc and copper. Season, breed and location affect micronucleus profile adversely and strong correlations exist between zinc and copper in water and fish and micronuclei profiles. Disease outbreak among rural dwellers depending on the water for domestic and other uses is imminent and they lack knowledge on its health implication. Furthermore, the study maintained that the micronucleus in fish could be measured with higher efficiency from the gill than the kidney erythrocytes and Synodontis clarias is more vulnerable to genetic damage due to high zinc and copper pollutants than Tilapia nilotica. Consequently, the study recommends environmental sensitization of the resident population and regular monitoring micronucleus tests of edible aquatic life such as Synodontis clarias catfish in order to eliminate the danger of people feeding on toxic metals, some of which are carcinogenic.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Many toxic and potentially toxic chemical substances, some of which are of natural origin and others due to human activities are available in the fresh water ecosystem daily. It is difficult to practise even elementary hygiene without sufficient quantities of water free of these contaminants UNFPA, 2001. As such, it is necessary to protect the water sources themselves from faecal, agricultural, and industrial contaminations pollutants. In developing countries, 90 to 95 percent of all sewage and 70 percent of all industrial wastes are dumped untreated into surface water UNFPA, 2001. Due to the increasing environmental exposure to these agents, the need for monitoring terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, especially in regions compromised by chemical pollution is paramount Mitchelmore and Chipman, 1998; Avishai, Rabinwitz, Moiseeva and Rinkevch, 2002; Silva, Heuser and Andrade, 2003; Matsumoto, Janaina, Mario, Maria, 2005.
Genotoxic pollution of aquatic ecosystem describes the introduction of contaminants with mutagenic, tertogenic and/or carcinogenic potentials into its principal media and genome of the resident organisms Badr and ElDib, 1978; Environ Health Perspect, 1996; Fagr, El Shehawi and Seehy, 2008. Genotoxicity is a deleterious action, which affects a cells genetic material affecting its integrity Environ Health Perspect, 1996; WHO, 1997. Several genotoxic substances are known to be mutagenic and carcinogenic, specifically those capable of causing genetic mutation and of contributing to the development of human tumors or cancers Black, Birge, Westerman and Francis, 1983; Hose, Hannah, Puffer and Landolt, 1984; Hose, 1985; Baumann and Mac, 1988; Shugart, 1988; Hayashi,
TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOLWEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 7
1.3 Research Questions 10
1.4 Research Aim and Objectives 10
1.5 Research Hypothesis 11
1.6 Justification of Study 12
1.7 Significance of Study 14
1.8 Scope of Study 15
1.9 Limitations of Study 16
1.10 Conceptual Framework 18
1.11 Description of the Study Area 25
1.11.1 Location and Extent of Anambra River 25
1.11.2 Geology 25
1.11.3 Climate 27
1.11.4 Hydrology 28
1.11.5 Landuse and Landcover 29
1.11.6 Sources of Freshwater, Pollutants, and their Distribution 30
1.12 Plan of Study 35
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 36
2.1 Aquatic Pollution Biomarkers 36
2.2 Heavy Metals 42
2.2.1 Types and Sources of Heavy Metals in Freshwater Ecosystems 44
2.2.2 Distribution Channels of Heavy Metals in Anambra River 48
2.2.3 Single and Joint Action Toxicity and Genotoxicity of Heavy Metals and Micronucleus Formation 49
2.2.4 Bioindicators and Bioaccumulation of Aquatic Heavy Metals and other Sublethal Effect of Heavy Metals 57
2.2.5 Public Health Implications of Heavy Metal Pollution of Freshwater 62
2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons as an Environmental Organic Pollutant 66
2.3.1 Entry into the Environment 67
2.3.2 Effects Related Information 69
2.3.2.1 Experimental Animals and In Vitro 69
2.3.2.2 Humans 70
2.3.2.3 Ecotoxicology 70
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 76
3.1 Research Design 76
3.2 Data Needs 80
3.3 Data Sources 80
3.4 Experimental Site 81
3.5 Sample Collection and Analysis 81
3.5.1 Collection of Fish and Water Samples 84
3.5.2 Laboratory Analysis 84
3.5.2.1 Biomarker Assay: Micronucleus Test 84
3.5.2.2 Physicochemical Parameters 85
3.5.2.3 Heavy Metal Analysis of Water and Fish Samples 86
3.5.2.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Analysis 86
3.5.2.5 EcoGenotoxicology: Micronucleus Inducing Activity of Heavy Metals Acting Singly and Jointly in Mixture against Test animals 88
3.6 Public Survey 90
3.7 Statistical Analysis 91
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND
DISCUSSION 93
4.1 Data Presentation 93
4.1.1 Season, Breed, and Location Effects on Incidence of Micronucleus MN 93
4.1.1.1 Season x Breed, Season x Location and Breed x Location Interaction Effects 94
4.1.1.2 Season x Breed x Location Interaction Effects 96
4.1.2 Physicochemical Parameters 103
4.1.3 Heavy Metal Concentrations 105
4.1.3.1 Seasons, Breed and Location Effects on the Heavy Metal Concentrations 105
4.1.3.2 Season x Breed, Seasons x Location, and Breed x Location Interaction Effects 106
4.1.3.3 Seasons x Breed x Location Interaction Effects 108
4.1.3.4 Season and Location Effects on Heavy Metal Concentrations in Water Column 109
4.1.3.5 Season x Location Interaction Effects 110
4.1.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Anambra River 111
4.1.5 Correlation between Heavy Metal Concentrations in Water and Fish and Micronuclei Profile 111
4.1.6 Single and Joint Action Genotoxicity Studies of Copper and Zinc against Synodontis clarias and Tilapia nilotica 112
4.1.7 Public Survey 114
4.2 Data Analysis 116
4.3 Discussion of Findings 119
4.3.1 Breed Effect 119
4.3.2 Season Effect 120
4.3.3 Location Effect 121
4.3.4 Relationship between Heavy Metals in Principal Media and Micronuclei Formation 122
4.3.5 Distribution of Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metal Genotoxic Effects 123
4.3.6 Responses from the Residents 128
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 132
5.1 Summary 132
5.2 Conclusions 133
5.3 Recommendations 135
5.3.1 Recommendations for Further Studies 137
REFERENCES 139
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Diversity of fish fauna in the Anambra River 29
Table 2.1 Mean values of Micronucleated Erythrocytes Examined in Blood and Kidneys of Fish Caught from Different Locations 39
Table 2.2 Heavy Metal Concentrations g/g in Synodontis clarias 43
Table 2.3 Genotoxicity of Copper In Vivo 52
Table 2.4 Genotoxicity of Copper In Vitro 53
Table 2.5 Genotoxicity of Zinc In Vivo 54
Table 2.6 Most Sensitive Toxicity Endpoints Reported for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for Freshwater Organisms 72
Table 3.1 Instrument for In situ Measurements 82 Table 4.1 Season, Breed and Location Effects on the Mean S.E Incidence of Micronucleus in Gill and Kidney blood of Freshwater Fish 93
Table 4.2 Season x Breed, Seasons x Location and Breed x Location Interaction Effects on Mean S.E Incidence of Micronucleus in Gill and Kidney blood of Freshwater Fish 95
Table 4.3 Season x Breed x Location Interaction Effects on the Mean S.E Incidences of Micronucleus in Gill and Kidney blood of Freshwater Fish 96
Table 4.4 Relative Abundance of Micronuclei MN in Kidney and Gill at Different Locations of Anambra River during Rainy Season 100
Table 4.5 Relative Abundance of Micronuclei MN in Kidney and Gill at Different Locations of Anambra River during Dry Season 100
Table 4.6 Physicochemical Characteristics of Anambra River in Mid Rainy Season July, 2009 104
| CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of study Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is a tertiary recovery process which is normally applied after primary and secondary recovery, to mobilize oil trapped in pores by vicious capillary forces. Thermal, chemical, solvent and gases are the most common form of various EOR process (Isco, 2007). Due to the decline of oil reserves caused by the rising oil production, and clamours for environmentally friendly practice in EOR techniques, petroleum engineers are currently driving EOR projects towards more efficient techniques. One of such efficient technique is the Air/Flue gas injection which is motivated by inexpensive source of air as well as environmentally friendly carbon-dioxide sequestration. The motivation for the use of air as an injectant in the EOR project is because of its abundance, availability and low cost. It can simply be supplied by the use of a compressor, with overall project having low initial and operating cost in comparison to other EOR methods (JOGMEC, 2011). Air for increasing oil recovery from reservoirs dates back to the 1940?s and early 1950?s (Hvizdos et al., 1983) and by the 1960s and 1970, about forty (40) in-situ full field or pilot projects had been undertaken throughout the world with North America topping such projects (Pwaga et al., 2010). This technique, apart from laboratory studies has been implemented in fields such as West Hackberry in Louisiana, Horse Creek North and South Dakota, Zhongyuan and Liaoche oil fields in China, H field in Indonesia, South Bridge in California and other countries such as Romania, United Kingdom, Japan, Canada, India, Argentina, Venezuela have maintained laboratory and field studies too (Sakthikumar et al., 1996; Ren et al., 1999; Mendoza et al., 2011; Niu et al., 2011; Iwata et al., 2001; Xia et al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2001). Air has also been used in heavy oil recovery and enhancement of this technique can lead to significant light oil production (Surguchev et al., 1998). An alternative to air injection is the flue gas (which contains nitrogen and carbon-dioxide) produced from the combustion of oxygen contained in the air to sweep oil. This EOR technique, when applied to light oil is known as light oil air injection while in heavy oil reservoir, it is called in-situ combustion. (Kuhlman, 2004 | Abstract This project was done to extract and characterize bean oil according to their particle sizes. The experiment was carried out using scent bean (i.e.‘Ozaki’,‘Ijilizi’or‘Azamu’) as a sample. The oils were extracted by solvent extraction/leaching extraction using n-hexane. Proximate analysis was carried out to obtain percentage moisture content, ash content, total oil content, protein content and carbohydrate content of the extracted oils. From observation, it was noticed that as the diameter of the sieve decreased, the quantity of oil obtained increased. | Abstract
This research work was carried out to determine the physicochemical analysis of the following vegetable oil (Groundnut oil, Palm kernel oil and Shea butter) were purchased from Abuja main market and the local method was used to prepare the oil in this study. All of the vegetable oil conformed physicochemical to the standards established by the Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS), African Regional Organization of Standardization (ARSO). The highest FA (fatty acid) is from palm acid in all of the three oils and range from a maximum of 3.0%, while the principal saponification value ranges from187-196 maximum at low levels. In all, the physicochemical analyses of the groundnut, palm kernel and Shea butter oils extracted locally and later refined, showed some significant differences. | ||
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