| Description | | CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
The term ?administration; is often used to mean ?to execute; or ?to enforce. However, the job of an administrator involves more than mere execution of plans and decisions made elsewhere. Accordingly, Onyene (2005) noted that where administrative function is reduced to execution, critical details are ignored. According to her, administration is a process of achieving organizational goals through frantic efforts directed towards putting to optimal use every available resource such as human, money, material and entrepreneurial skills. Perhaps it is in this operationally intricate sense that a school of thought reasoned that administration is more complex than management. This is because day-to-day school administration entails critical procedures through which one in a position of authority such as the head teacher or principal discharges his/her responsibilities using the combined efforts of other people. Administration uses organized method to ensure the achievement of the aims and objectives of the school or any organization. Thus, the school administrator such as the principal combines his or her conceptual, technical, and human skills in ?performing a garmot of management functions like planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling, instructing, communicating, supervising, etc (Onyene 2000). Besides, in a private school situation, Onyene (2005) noted that administration is most tasking because it has to sometimes commence with fundamental issues in structural designing, asking and answering essential questions on enrolment and patronage such as customer relations, customer values and satisfaction, learning and curriculum repackaging and many more. This workload explains why effective school administration is often at crisis level.This is because investors in schools in a bid to break even in terms of cost-benefit employ unqualified persons to head their schools. Thus, the head teacher or principal may not possess those administrative skills which he or she can strategically use for achieving corporate excellence. In actual sense for a private school to attain organizational effectiveness, proper definition of tangible and non-tangible goals is expected. In order words, private school organizations must pursue in a very personal astute manner consciously defined goals and or purposes using the helm of affairs. Once these goals are attained both internal efficiency and ?break-even?, normally follow using simple administrative maintenance tips.
Furthermore, the practice of administration is as old as humanity. It is the art and science of systematic and careful arrangement of resources (human, materials, funds) available to an organization for the achievement of its objectives (Onyene, 2000). Besides, industrial revolution heralded in a strong concern for how best to organize human and material resources to ensure maximum profits for the employers. But the Human Relations Movement (HRM) as a reaction to the scientific management of industrial revolution stressed how best to motivate persons to harness materials for maximum productivity and for individual worker?s satisfaction. This is a concern, earlier confined to business and industrial enterprise. Thus, the theory and practice of administration were regarded as the monopoly of business, industrial enterprises, and later the public service. This explains the greater popularity of such terms as ?business administration and ?pupils administration?. According to Nwankwo (1982), Educational Administration when fully emerged was perceived as a translation of the principles and processes used in business and public administration. This impression is fast fading with the growing realization that all human organizations whether they are business, industries, public, religious, educational or military, have equivalent and transferable factors and challenges which demand identical theories and strategies coupled with the fact that all human problems emanates from administration (Onyene, 2005).
Administration is a determinant of the level of organizational efficiency and or successes and failures. Three key elements to an organization?s success according to Onyene (2005) include effective leadership; effective human resources recruitment and management; and effective development of persons, programmes and activities. The level of administrative efficiency goes to determine whether the organization will level off for growth; become stagnated and decline, or blossom forth to achieve new heights and grow through expansion. Educational administration therefore involves the use of fundamental procedures consisting of both administrative and operative management techniques to attain the goal of education. Thus, administrative manager of a school is constantly planning, organizing, and controlling. In operative management as in school administration, the task consists of mainly supervising, motivating, and communicating on day-to-day basis.
In the secondary schools, it is the principals that are saddled with administrative functions (supervising, motivating and communication). It is therefore expected that principals should use their offices to mobilize the school personnel, especially the academic personnel to perform their teaching jobs effectively. It is against this expectation that this study attempts to examine the extent to which teachers? performance in staff secondary schools in Lagos Mainland Local Government Area is influenced by administrative functions of the principals.
Statement of Problem
This study attempts to examine the extent to which secondary school principals have used their administrative functions to influence teachers? work performance. It is predicated on the words of Ofoegbu, (2001) who noted that teachers in secondary schools are neither given the desired attention nor carried along by the school managers (principals) as they perform their administrative functions of motivating, supervising and communicating. This inadequate involvement of teachers in administrative activities by the principals is noted by Ofoegbu to be one of the major factors affecting the morale and job performance of teachers in Nigerian secondary schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study includes the following:
1. To examine the relationship between principals? supervisory activities in schools and teachers? work performance.
2. To determine whether there is any relationship between principals? motivating activities in schools and teachers? work performance.
3. To assess the relationship between principals? communicating activities in schools and teachers? work performance.
Research Questions
The questions below were raised in the study.
1. Do principals? supervisory activities in schools influence teachers? work performance?
2. Is there any relationship between principals? motivating activities in schools and teachers? work performance?
3. Do principals? communicating activities have any relationship with teachers? work performance?
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were postulated to guide the study.
1. There is no significant relationship between principals? supervisory activities in schools and teachers? work performance.
2. There is no significant relationship between principals? motivating activities in schools and teachers? work performance?
3. There is no significant relationship between principals? communicating activities and teachers? work performance?
Significance of the Study
This study is significant in the following ways:
First and foremost, it would be relevant to both principals and teachers in the sense that it would enable them to re-examine their professional commitment.
It is policy oriented in the sense that it is aimed at filling the gap between principals? and teachers? interpersonal relationship and achievement orientation at our secondary schools, especially the public ones.
It would serve as a reference document in the department of Educational Administration for research students carrying out research on the same or similar topic.
It would also be relevant in calling for review of teachers? position in the nation and the entire society with the view of challenging them to occupy their rightful positions and become more effective in the education system.
Scope of the Study
This study focused on examining the relationship between administrative functions of principals and teachers? work performance in staff secondary schools in Lagos Mainland Local Government Area of Lagos State. It covered the three staff secondary schools (University of Lagos Staff School, Yaba College of Technology Staff School, and Federal College of Education (Tech) Staff School) in Mainland Local Government Area of Lagos State; involved only the teachers in these schools.
Definition of Terms
The terms below are defined in the way their meanings specifically apply to this study.
Teacher: A teacher particularly in schools is a trained person who manages the teaching/learning process efficiently.
Teaching: It is a composite activity, which may be difficult to describe by simple definition. Most theorists viewed it as a process of imparting knowledge, or skill to learners.
Motivation: The drive or urge that makes one behave in a particular way. This drive or urge can be intrinsically (internally) or extrinsically (externally) caused. | ABSTRACT
The main concern in education sector is how teaching methods affect students? performance. This study examined teaching methods on performance of students in public secondary schools (A-level) in Tanzania where Nyamagana District in Mwanza was used as a case of study. The study was guided by three specific objectives: To identifying teaching methods used in instruction of science subjects in public secondary school, to assess students? perception of the appropriateness of teaching methods used in teaching in public secondary school and to determine the level of relationship between teaching methods and students? performance in public secondary schools in Nyamagana District, Mwanza. The study applied descriptive research designed that incorporated qualitative and quantitative approach. The sample of teachers 78, students 129 and inspectors 9 was surveyed using in-depth interview and questionnaire. Qualitative data was analyzed descriptively using SPSS while thematic analysis was used to analyzed qualitative data. The study findings revealed that most effective teaching methods were demonstration followed by question and answers and then brainstorming, teachers should know the value and impact of different teaching methods and regular training/workshop should be conducted on teaching methods. The study recommended that traditional methods like lecture should not be used. The study also suggested other areas for further research as the same study should be carried in other district before generalization is done and similar research also should be conducted in private schools to know the teaching conditions. | CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Background to the Study
Diarrhoea accounts for high levels of mortality in young children in developing countries like Nigeria, despite worldwide efforts to improve overall child health levels. Each year, in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, approximately five million children under five years of age die from acute diarrhoea. About 80 per cent of these deaths are in the first two years of life (Lucas & Gilles, 2009) In the developing world as a whole, about one-third of infant and child deaths are due to diarrhoea and approximately 70 per cent of diarrhoeal deaths are caused by dehydration - the loss of large quantity of water and salts from the body, which needs water to maintain blood volume and other fluids to function properly (Gupta & Mahajan, 2005). UNICEF (2002) submitted that in Nigeria, infant mortality rates are twice as high in rural settings as they are in urban ones due to poor hygiene and poor sanitation. Of the annual 3 million infant births in Nigeria, approximately 170,000 result in deaths that are mainly due to poor knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhoea. Several factors are likely to contribute to the very high diarrhoea morbidity and mortality rates, in children under-five years including poverty, female illiteracy, poor water supply and sanitation, poor hygiene practices and inadequate health services (Park, 2009). Malnutrition is another established risk factor for mortality among children with diarrhoea disease. This may be due to inadequate case management. The first line of management of diarrhoea, is therefore, the prevention of dehydration. This can be achieved at home using Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT).
Diarrhoea is the disturbance of the gastrointestinal tract comprising of changes in intestinal motility and absorption, leading to increase in the volume of stools and in their consistency (Ballabriga, Hilpert & Isliker, 2000). In diarrhoea, stool contains more water than normal stool and is often called loose or watery stool. In certain cases, they may contain blood in which case the diarrhoea is called dysentery (Obionu, 2001). Any passage of three or more watery stools within a day (24 hours) is referred to as diarrhoea (Tauxe, 1997). The consistency and the volume of stool constitute how to classify diarrhoea.
World Health Organization - WHO (1993) classified diarrhoea as acute or persistent based on its duration. An episode of diarrhoea that lasts less than two weeks is acute diarrhoea, while diarrhoea that lasts more than two weeks is persistent. Morley (2000) further classified diarrhoea according to its typology: Secretary diarrhoea, osmotic diarrhoea and exudative diarrhoea. Secretary diarrhoea results from active process in the intestinal epithelium stimulated by the presence of toxin, chemical or nutritional product in the intestinal linning. Osmotic diarrhoea is caused by the presence of the intestinal linning of osmotically active solutes that are poorly absorbed by the injection of laxatives such as magnesium sulphate or magnesium hydroxide. Exudative diarrhoea is associated with damage to the mucosa lining leading to outpouring of mucus, blood and plasma protein among other substances. However, it is important to note that the classification of diarrhoea does not influence the cause.
Diarrhoea is a symptom of infection caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms most of which can be spread by contaminated water. Diarrhoea in most cases is caused by three major groups of micro-organisms namely; Viruses, bacteria and protozoa or parasites (Lucas & Gilles, 2009). The main agents of diarrhoea according to them are enteroviruses (e.g. rotavirus, escherichia coli, campylobacter spp, shigella, vibrio cholera, salmonella (non typhoid), entamoeba histolytica, giardia lamblia, cryptosporidium). These are further grouped in the following ways: Viruses (e.g. Rota virus); Bacteria (e.g. shigella, escherichia coli, vibrio cholerae, salmonella non typhoid, campylobacter spp). Parasites (e.g. entamoeba histolytica, crytosporidium and giardia lamblia). All over the world, viruses especially rotavirus has been identified as the major cause of acute diarrhoea in children. Studies in Nigeria also found viruses as the major causes of diarrhoea in 60 per cent of cases with bacteria responsible for about only 3-20 per cent. Most of these pathogens are transmitted by faeco-oral route. Childhood diarrhoea within the context of this study refers to any type of loose, watery stool that occurs more frequently than usual in a child. The various causative agents vary according to the signs and symptoms manifesting from the disease.
The main consequence of diarrhoea are frequent loose or watery stools, the risk of dehydration, damage to intestine (especially when there is bloody diarrhoea) and loss of appetite with or without vomiting. However, Victoria, Bryce, Fountaine and Monasch (2000) asserted that signs of dehydration are not evident until there is acute fluid loss of approximately 4-5 per cent of body weight. The signs and symptoms of dehydration include sunken fontanelle, dry mouth and throat, fast and weak pulse, loss of skin elasticity and reduced amount of urine. This loss leads to shock and untimely death of under-five. Werner (2001) noted that dehydration takes its heaviest toll on infants and children under-five. The signs and symptoms according to Longmach, Wilkinson and Rajagopalan (2004) are passage of frequent loose watery stools, abdominal cramps or pain, fever particularly if there is an infectious cause and bleeding. Bacteria and parasites often can produce bloody diarrhoea (dysentary). In addition, inflammatory bowel disease, polyps and colorectal cancer can cause blood and mucus in the stools, nausea and vomiting may also be present in the case of infection.
The main dangers of diarrhoea are dehydration and malnutrition (WHO, 1993). Dehydration according to WHO is most often caused by loss of a large amount of water and salt from the body, while malnutrition can be caused by an inadequate diet due to poverty, a lack of appropriate foods or incorrect beliefs about feeding, frequent infections of which diarrhoea is one of them.
Spradley and Allender (1996) stated that the most common modes of transmission of diarrhoea are contaminated food and water, dirty feeding utensils (especially feeding bottles and teats) and the faecally contaminated fingers of the infants or the mother. Infection occurs through ingesting food contaminated with adequate doses of Salmonella, and Shigella or E. Coli. The cycle begins when the infectious agent multiplies and grows in the food medium. The agent subsequently invades the host upon ingestion of the food.
There are other physical modes of transmission of diarrhoea as identified by the United Nations Children?s Fund - UNICEF (1998). These include: poor source of water supply, especially in rural areas; poor environmental sanitation leading to attitudinal problems of defecating in open spaces, pit latrine, bushes and in the streams (used for drinking and bathing). Feeding bottle is also a feature of infection (Federal Rebublic of Nigeria - FRN 2002). Lucas and Gilles (2009) also maintained that transmission of diarrhoea occurs by the faecal-oral route due to poor standards of personal and environmental hygiene. These conditions will determine the seriousness of infection of diarrhoea. The most important aspect of managing a child with diarrhoea are preventing or treating dehydration and maintaining good nutrition.
These preventive practices according to WHO (1993) include breast feeding, improved weaning, use of plenty of water for hygiene and clean water for drinking, hand washing, use of latrines, proper disposal of the stools of young children, use of Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) and Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) and immunization against measles. Cutting (1994) stressed that drinking extra fluid in the early stages of diarrhoea is crucial in preventing dehydration and subsequent death. He also noted that the combination of giving more fluid than usual as soon as diarrhoea starts and continuing feeding is an effective home therapy for acute diarrhoea. The knowledge and practice of these becomes necessary for the mothers in the issues of childhood diarrhoea.
Traditionally, mothers are expected to spend most of their time in the house, looking after their children and carrying out other domestic functions. It may be right and natural, therefore, that the first person to manage a diarrhoea episode at home is possibly the mother. Mothers on this basis have been identified as the most important people involved in the management of childhood diarrhoea, hence mothers are used for this study. Landy (1992) referred to them as the key persons and managers of the home. She asserted that people, especially mothers possess adequate knowledge about their baby?s health and disease prevention. Thus, they are recognized as very important persons for the smooth running of the family, including supervision of health of their children. Macleans (1998), on his own part, accorded mothers the traditional responsibility of looking after their children with regard to weaning and nursing care. This, according to him, is because of their being close to their children. This situation is similar to the relationship between mothers and their children in Ezeagu LGA. As asserted by Davely and Wilson (1981) and Bethann, Gopel, Douglas and Lynn (1992), literate mothers are better able to look after their children than non-literate ones. Thus, those who possess the appropriate knowledge are more likely to be able to take the appropriate action to protect their children especially the under five (childhood).
According to Hodges (2001) childhood is a period of rapid physical growth, including the development of the brain almost to its full adult size, and is also a critical period for the development of the cognitive functions. He further added that the key factors for child growth and development are adequate care, good health, nutrition and stimulation. Inadequate nutrition and care in the first few years of life can seriously interfere with brain development and lead to such neurological and behavioural disorders as learning disabilities (Bargley, 1996). Childhood in the context of this study means the condition or period of being a child or a young human being below the age of five. The knowledge of adequate and quality childhood care could lead to healthiness of the child in terms of prevention of early childhood diseases like diarrhoea.
Knowledge according to Winifred (1989) is accumulated facts, truth, principles and information to which human mind has access. Knowledge can be defined as the sum of conceptions, views and propositions which has been established and tested (Conforth, 1996). The Nigerian Education Research Council - NERC (1982) asserted that an educated and knowledgeable person is one who understands, among other things the basic facts concerning health and disease and protects his or her own health and that of the community. WHO (1995) also maintained that if a person is well informed in the area of health, he or she would be able to reject practices that imperil his or her health. The individual will also be well equipped to make the right decision concerning the children and family, and will play active role in improving the society in which the person lives. In the context of this study, knowledge refers to the act of having adequate information and understanding of the concept, signs and symptoms, modes of transmission and management practices of diarrhoea by the child bearing mothers. Adequate or high level knowledge of the concepts, signs and symptoms, mode of transmission of diarrhoea is capable of guaranteeing proper management practices of diarrhoea among children.
Management according to Osinem (2008) is the co-ordination of all the resources of an organization through the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain organizational objectives. Koontz and Weighrich (2005) described management as the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals working together in groups efficiently accomplish selected aims. Management as defined by wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia (2007) is the art and science of getting things done through others. It can also refer to the person who performs the act of management. Management in this context involves childbearing mothers doing or producing something like proper breastfeeding, washing feeding bottles, washing plates and hands, keeping the environment clean and producing oral rehydration solution to cope with childhood diarrhoea. Ekenedo (1994) noted that there was a relationship between knowledge and management practice adopted by mothers. She concluded that better life will not come from mere acquisition of knowledge but from its practice.
Practice, according to Hornby (2001) is a way of doing something that is common or habitual; it is a way of doing something or expected way in a particular situation. Funks and Wagnalls (2003) defined practice as any customary action or proceeding regarded as individuals habit. Sally (2004) further defined practice as an established way of doing things especially one that developed through experience and knowledge. When management relates to practice, it becomes management practice.
Bucher (1994) perceived management practice as the application of good health actions to ones daily living such as proper personal hygiene and nutrition. In this study, management practices refer to all the actions that are undertaken by mothers to avert childhood diarrhoea. There are many such management practices.
WHO (1993) identified a number of management practices and these are: breast feeding, Oral Rehydration Therapy(ORT), weaning practices, use of plenty of water for hygiene and use of clean water for drinking, hand washing, use of latrines, safe disposal of stools of young children and measles immunization. Early knowledge and practice of these in the home may increase the chances of its efficacy and likely reduce complications following diarrhoea. It is most likely that mothers who are the home-makers will make use of them in order to save their children when they are informed. Okafor (1993) opined that women are better able to understand information and follow instructions if their level of education and information should be raised. The way of determining if women possess adequate knowledge regarding childhood diarrhoea is to assess the level of knowledge they possess about the aspects of the disease.
Level of knowledge and practice can be ascertained in numerous ways. Ashur (1977) opined that a proportion of less than 40 per cent correct response should be taken as indicator of low level of knowledge, 40 - 59 per cent is considered average and 60 - 80 per cent is considered high, while over 80 per cent is regarded as very high level of knowledge. Okafor
(1997) modified Ashur?s four scales of measurement into five scales by carving two levels that is, 10-20 per cent as ?very low? and 21-39 per cent as ?low? out of Ashur?s proportion of less than 40 per cent described as ?low? level of knowledge. The Ashur?s (1977) principle was adopted in the present study to determine the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhea by mothers in Ezeagu L.G.A.
This study was carried out in Ezeagu L.G.A of Enugu State, with its headquarter at Aguobu Owa. The inhabitants of the area are mainly farmers, civil servants and traders. The possible sources of water supply range from the use of stream, tanker water to the occasional use of tap water. They also use rain water during rainy seasons. General environmental sanitation is poor as there are no facilities for refuse disposal. They make use of open refuse dumps to dispose of refuse - dumping them into nearby bushes, burn them or dumped by the roadside. They use pit latrines and nearby bushes for sewage disposal. However, some well- to-do families make use of water closet system. Some are literate while others are not. The sociodemographic factors that may influence this study include; education, age and parity of the women. This is because an educated mother might use health information more than the uneducated counterparts (Okafor, 1993). Their age and parity also differed and might have conferred different levels of experience which may also affect the management of childhood diarrhoea. Studies such as those of Rao, Vinod, Mishra and Rutherford (1998), which revealed that more educated women were more likely than less educated women to manage diarrhoea in children. Ekenedo (1994) found that age and parity level might affect the rate at which childhood diarrhoea is managed. This revelation which was made by Ekenedo (1994) Sixteen years ago and confirmed by Rao et al (1998) - might have influence on mothers in Ezeagu LGA where the present study will be carried out.
The desire to effect change in behaviour for reducing the risk of future illness according to Philips (1991) should be based upon theoretical models that identify predictors of behavioural change. Several models or theories concentrate on the significance of socio- cognitive variables in preventive health. Theoretical models relevant to childhood diarrhoea knowledge and management practices among mothers in the context of the present study will include the following: health action process approach, systems management theory and self efficacy theory.
The extents to which mothers in Enugu state portray their knowledge and management practice of childhood diarrhoea do not appear to have received adequate research attention. This cannot be less true about mothers in Ezeagu LGA. Finding out these, certainly, will represent a positive step forward in the effort to promote the childhood diarrhoea knowledge and management practices. Following from these therefore, one is then inclined to ask, what is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers in Ezeagu LGA of Enugu state towards the childhood diarrhoea and what management practices do they adopt? The above in essence, represent the reason of this study.
Statement of the Problem
Adequate and accurate knowledge has been admitted as a prerequisite for the adoption of desirable health behaviour. WHO (1995) asserted that when a person is well-informed, the individual will be equipped to make the right decision concerning the health of the children and family and will take an active role in improving the society in which the person lives. Mothers should have adequate knowledge of the childhood diseases, among which diarrhea is one. This knowledge which they gained from the different MCH clinics should help the mothers to take adequate and accurate care of their children.
Regrettably, in spite of the knowledge gained by these mothers, childhood diarrhea is found to be the second main cause of under-five mortality the world over, in the developing countries and in Nigeria in particular. It is not unlikely that low level of knowledge of mothers in Ezeagu LGA may militate against the effective performance of diarrhea prevention practices.
It is against this background of the cases and magnitude of diarrhoeal diseases, its associated implications and complications and the need for child safety and health promotion that the researcher was motivated to ascertaining the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhea by mothers in Ezeagu LGA of Enugu State.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to find out the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhea by mothers in Ezeagu LGA. Specifically, the study intends to find out:
1. level of knowledge of the concept of diarrhoea possessed by mothers in Ezeagu LGA;
2. level of knowledge of the signs and symptoms of childhood diarrhoea possessed by mothers.
3. level of knowledge of modes of spread or transmission of diarrhoea possessed by mothers.
4. level of knowledge of the dangers of childhood diarrhoea possessed by mothers in Ezeagu LGA.
5. level of knowledge of preventive measures against childhood diarrhoea possessed by mothers.
6. the management practices of childhood diarrhoea by mothers in Ezeagu LGA;
7. the difference in the knowledge of mothers about childhood diarrhoea according to level of education;
8. the difference in the management practices of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on level of education;
9. the difference in the knowledge of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on age;
10. the difference in management practices of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on age;
11. the difference in the knowledge of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on parity
;
12. the difference in the management practices of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on parity.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study;
1. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding concept of childhood diarrhoea?
2. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding signs and symptoms of diarrhoea?
3. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding modes of transmission of childhood diarrhoea?
4. What is the mother?s level of knowledge of the dangers of childhood diarrhoea?
5. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding the preventive measures of childhood diarrhoea?
6. What are the management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea in Ezeagu L.G.A?
7. What is the difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to level of education?
8. What are the differences in the diarrhoea management practices of mothers regarding diarrhoea according to level of education?
9. What is the difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to age?
10. What are the differences in the management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to age?
11. What is the difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to parity? and
12. What are the differences in the management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to parity?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses are hereby postulated for the study and will be tested at .05 level of significance.
1. There is no statistically significant difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to age.
2. There is no statistically significant difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to level of education.
3. There are no statistically significant differences in the management practices of childhood diarrhoea by mothers according to parity.
4. There is no statistically significant difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to parity.
5. There are no statistically significant differences in the management of childhood diarrhoea by mothers according to age.
6. There is no statistically significant difference in management practice of childhood diarrhoea by mothers according to level of education.
Significance of the Study
Information, of both local and foreign origin abounds regarding childhood diarrhoea in Nigeria. The study will ginger interest in the area of childhood health and disease in Nigeria. Mothers especially childbearing women will benefit from the result of the study as it will provide them with appropriate information on the concept, signs and symptoms, modes of transmission and the preventive measures of childhood diarrhoea. This will enable the women to make informed choices on the adoption of the management practices. Appropriate knowledge will influence them and enhance their practice. It will also help them in educating the public on the preventive measures of childhood diarrhoea. Low level of knowledge on the other hand will equally compel health policy makers to step up efforts in the area of education, seminars, workshops especially in rural areas with a view to raising the level of knowledge of the people regarding childhood diarrhoea and its management practices.
The result on the management of childhood diarrhoea by mothers will be useful to mothers and caregivers. Appropriate practice will be encouraged and allow these mothers and caregivers to carry out these practices in the already established direction. On the other hand, inappropriate practice will call for adjustment and improvement and provide enlightenment efforts to achieve better results. Specifically, the data to be generated on the management practices of mothers may likely sensitize the mothers on the childhood diarrhoea in Ezeagu LGA to encourage identified sound practices while engineering changes in the unwholesome practices of mothers towards childhood diarrhoea.
The findings of differences in the level of knowledge and management practice according to level of education will be useful to mothers, caregivers and institutions of learning. These mothers and caregivers by level of knowledge, who had adequate knowledge and appropriate practice may be encouraged. Those with low level of knowledge and inappropriate practice may be exposed to education and enlightenment interventions by health workers that will enhance their knowledge and management practice of childhood diarrhoea.
The findings will be useful to the general public who may need appropriate information on childhood diarrhoea. Researchers will benefit from the study. They can build on the findings for further research is this area of knowledge. The data concerning this study may help to enrich the pool of data on the subject matter. Such data may also be beneficial to both Health and Education ministries in Enugu state, and may form the basis for future policy formulation and modification.
The study has identified some of the demographic factors associated with the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhoea. This will help health workers to know the group of mothers that needs more education on childhood diarrhoea. These adjustments will facilitate understanding and corresponding behaviour among mothers concerning childhood diarrhoea. When this happens mothers will be convinced to adopt appropriate practices in managing diarrhoea cases. The end product of this will be a morbidity and mortality decline.
Finally, scholars and reading public will benefit from the theoretical significance of the study. It will contribute to the synthesis of the relevant theories in the field of study. It seeks to explain why people think, feel, and act the way they do. The study will add to the existing literature in the field of health education and child health in particular.
Scope of the Study
The study was delimited to mothers in Ezeagu LGA. of Enugu state, which is made up of eight towns namely; Imezi owa, Aguobu owa, Mgbagbu owa, Oghe, Olo, Awha, Umanaa and Umumba. Ezeagu LGA is located some 20 kilometers south west of Enugu, the Enugu state capital in Eastern Nigeria. The study was concerned with finding out the childhood diarrhoea level of knowledge and management practices of mothers in Ezeagu
L.G.A. This will consist of the causes, modes of spread, signs and symptoms and control/preventive measures or management of childhood diarrhoea. The socio-demographic factors of age, level of education and parity and their relationship to the knowledge and management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea will also be explored | ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate biology teachers? awareness and utilization of innovative teaching strategies in Oyo South Senatorial District, Nigeria. The study found out the effects of the teachers? variables such as qualification, teaching experience and gender on their utilization of selected twenty five (25) innovative teaching strategies. A sample of three hundred (300) Biology teachers was purposively and randomly selected for the study.The study was a descriptive research of the survey type, the instrument used to gather the data for analyses was a researcher designed questionnaire known as the Innovative Teaching Strategies Questionnaire (ITSQ). The instrument was validated for data collection by three experts from the Department of Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. The reliability was determined by test-retest method using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and a reliability index of 0.71 was obtained. Mean and Spearman Rho Rank Order Statistics were used to answer the research questions while the hypotheses were tested using t-test and ANOVA all at 0.05 level of significance.The findings revealed that the biology teachers in Oyo South Senatorial District were highly aware of the selected innovative teaching strategies with the percentage of awareness being 88.0%. The level of utilization of the strategies was high as 88.0% of the strategies were highly utilized. The utilization of the innovative teaching strategies significantly differed on the basis of teachers? qualification (fcal= 7.108, p<0.05) with qualified biology teachers having a higher utilization of the innovative teaching strategies than the unqualified biology teachers and teachers? gender (t=3.042, p< 0.05) with female biology teachers having a higher utilization of the innovative teaching strategies than the male biology teachers, but the study revealed that the years of experience of the biology teachers had no effect on their utilization of the innovative teaching strategies (t=0.908, p> 0.05)Based on these findings, it was recommended among others that workshops, seminars and symposia should be organized for in-service science teachers on the awareness of the innovative teaching strategies with low level of awareness as each of the strategies have specific areas where effective and that inªservice training should be organized for teachers on the ways they can effectively put the innovative teaching strategies to use. Qualified teachers should also be posted to schools as they are discovered to be less in number (111) compared to the number of unqualified teachers (189) to give room for effective utilization of these strategies. Teacher training institutions should include the least and non-utilized strategies found in this study - specifically CAI, Minimalism, Socratic Method, Mind Maps, Project Based, Acronym Memory, Vee Mapping, Constructivism, Field Trip, Checklist, and Analogy into their curricular packages and make deliberate efforts to get the biology teachers acquitted with the use of each of the strategies effectively | CHAPTER ONE
Background to the study
The relevance of profession to an individual or his success in it is not determined by the preponderance of same sexed people with the individual in that profession. Gender stereotyping is a conformist behaviour which hardly makes for a divergent expression of one personal quality or the uniqueness of an individual. This validates the reasoning that no profession should be held as conventional for any human gender.
Gender according to the United Nations definition as adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women (1996) in Beijing China is ?Man and Woman?. But to Bassow (1991), gender is seen as a psychological term describing behaviours and attributes expected of individuals on the basis of being born either male or female. It is on this note that Azikiwe, (1993) illuminates that gender differences are obvious from birth and children are socialized very early into appropriate sex-typed occupation. This assertion tries to identify gender as one of the significant determinants of choice of vocations among people. Emeyonu (1994) articulates this point in his words stating that girls were not supposed to go into Engineering, Law, or Medicine; but should go into professions like teaching and nursing. He went further to assert that:
?A female student applying to study mechanical engineering is look down upon as an oddity and an exception to the rule and perhaps should have her head examined. Girls were supposed to do Arts, Education and Home Economics. Unfortunately, most young Nigerian girls aspiring for higher studies have come to believe this myth and have approached their choice of careers with difference and timidity? (p 125)
Besides, culture and tradition working through the family setting have assigned occupations to males and females in the society; thus each sex is straight-jacketed in areas considered exclusive for it according to family traditional belief or background. In the Nigeria pre-colonial traditional setting before the advent of Western Education, Traditional Education was highly characterized by domestication of girls and trade learning for boys; hence, education of children was polarized between sexes according to their future roles in the society. Fafunwa (1974) who captured this trend in his work notes that boys received rigorous training on the farm under the instruction of their father and latter sent to learn one trade or the other under the apprenticeship system; while girls underwent training at home in child care, food preparation and so on under strict supervision of their mothers. Today, Western Education is seen to have taken over from Traditional Education, yet, may be as carry over effects of the Traditional Education impartation, a strict dichotomy still exists in the kind of vocations pursued by boys and girls in a family. The family background of a person/apprentice has always been a determining factor in the person?s choice of vocation. Parents at all times want to channel the future of their children and as such go as far as deciding on their children?s choice of careers and vocations without the slightest consideration of whether their children had any flare in the vocations chosen for them.
Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is an integral part of the general education process. (UNESCO 2001) this socio-economic factor has been subject of various definitions depending on the needs of the nations at that point in time, or the perception of the interested individual. However, the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has advanced a definition which may be considered as universal and adaptable to the various level of the socioeconomic development of the nations. This definition attempts to liberalize TVE and compensate for the apathy that is usually demonstrated towards its development at some early stages until the needs inevitably arouse. (Kantor, 1986, UNESCO & ILO 2002, FRN 2004) The UNESCO definition, which has also been adopted by Nigeria stated thus:
"Technical and Vocational Education is used as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of educational processes involving in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and acquisition of practical skills, attitudes understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life " (UNESCO & ILO 2002, FRN 2004).
The inherent characteristics of TVE that made it amenable to entrepreneurship included it being means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work; an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship; an instrument for producing environmentally sound sustainable development; and a method of facilitating poverty alleviation (UNESCO/ILO 2002 FRN 2004).
According to Daniel and Hut tin (2002), quality Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), help develop the individual's knowledge of science and technology in a broad occupational area requiring technical and professional competencies and specific occupational skills. This virtue?s essential for the development of entrepreneurship. TVE represents the productive aspect of the educational process in of that it is directly linked with the world of work, TVE is an investment not a cost, with significant returns, including the well being of workers; enhanced productivity and internal competitiveness (UNESCO 2000) The accumulation of these benefits constitutes a profit to the investment and as such compensation for the risk-taking tendencies of an entrepreneur.
The current emphasis on vocational education started in the primary Education section in 1976 with the implementation of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme, which the Federal government of Nigeria was the sole financier. Secondary schools embraced the vocational/technical emphasis in 1982/83 school year when the first batch of the UPE was ready for secondary education. Vocational/technical education was made so popular that children from well-to-do families sought and gained admission in vocational/technical schools, which before then was seen to be demeaning for children from higher socio-economic backgrounds in Nigeria. That was when the 6-3-3-4 education structure started.
Nigeria is a developing nation characterized by a slow rate of industrial growth, which does not match her population growth rate. Since the mid 1970s emphasis has been placed on vocational education as a strategy for combating unemployment of youths. Vocational education was envisaged as the type that school leavers could employ themselves and others if they become entrepreneurs. This prospect is made for vocational school leavers irrespective of sex.
Besides, Nigeria as a developing nation is characterized by a slow industrial growth rate which lays emphasis on right choices of vocations towards entrepreneurial skill development as a strategy for combating unemployment of youths. Entrepreneurial vocations are therefore envisaged as the type of courses needed by school leavers to be self-employed and employers of others as they become entrepreneurs. Besides, we are in globalization era which widens opportunities for employment and entrepreneurship; and if youths are highly proficient in the requisite skills, they can become employers or gain employment not only in their areas of specialization in the country but even outside the national borders.
Statement of Problem
This study attempts to examine gender and family background as determinants of choice of vocations among apprentices in vocational centres in Lagos. This is predicated on the findings of Akpan (2006); Etuk (2002) and Chimuaza & Obanaya (1989) which reveal that gender and family related factors are significant determinants of choice of careers among youths.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which the choice of vocations among apprentices in vocational centres in Lagos is influenced by gender and family background. Based on the above main objective, this study would examine the extent to which choice of vocations among apprentices is influenced by the following:
? Gender of the apprentice,
? Educational background of the family,
? Financial status of the family,
? Religious background of the family, and
? Cultural background of the family.
Research Questions
The following questions are raised to guide the study in attaining the above objectives.
(i) Is gender a determinant of choice of vocation among apprentices?
(ii) Does educational background of the family determine the choice of vocation among apprentices?
(iii) Is financial status of the family a determinant of choice of vocation among apprentices?
(iv) Does the family religious belief affect the choice of vocations among apprentices?
(v) Is cultural background of the family a determinant of choice of vocations among apprentices?
Research Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were posited for the study.
(i) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by their gender.
(ii) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the educational background of their family.
(iii) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the financial status of their family.
(iv) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the religious belief of their family.
(v) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the cultural background of their family.
Significance of the Study
This study is a contribution to knowledge for its painstaking elaborate effort to articulate the extent to which choice of vocations among apprentices in Lagos is susceptible to their gender differentials and family related factors.
The study will also serve the purpose of a reference document in the department of Adult Education, University of Lagos for researchers and students carrying out research on the same or similar topic.
The findings of this study will be useful to gender analysts as well as to counsellor trainers and psychologists. It will also be useful to instructors at the vocational centres as well as to parents and students.
Scope of the Study
This study is limited to examine the extent to which choice of vocations among apprentices in Lagos is determined by gender and family related factors. The study covered only the vocational centres in the Akoka area of Lagos State; but was limited to involve only Federal College of Education (Tech), Akoka, Lagos. Besides, out of the entire apprentices of the above centre, only hundred and twenty (120) of them were involved in the study. |
| Content | Abstract
This project is on The use of instructional materials in teaching economics in some selected secondary schools in Kano Municipal local government area. The main thrust of the present study is to assess the Use of Instructional Materials in Teaching Economics in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Kano Municipal Local Government Area Kano state Nigeria. The study was conducted with four research objectives also, four research questions were answered. A total of twenty-two (22) teachers responded to the questionnaire. The analysis of the data collected was done using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings have therefore revealed that there is a significant difference in the opinions of the respondents on the use of instructional materials in teaching Economics in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Kano Municipal Local Government Area Kano state, there is a significant difference in the opinions of the respondents on the effect of instructional materials and students academic performance in Teaching Economics in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Kano Municipal Local Government Area Kano state. There is a significant difference in the opinion of the respondent on the use of improvising instructional materials in teaching Economics in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Kano Municipal Local Government Area Kano state. | | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, significance of the study, scope and limitations of the study. It also gives the conceptual framework and definition of key terms.
1.2 Background of the Study
Teaching methods are used to impart knowledge to students they are the means by which the teacher attempts to impart the desired learning or experience (Ndirangu, 2007). The choice of a particular method of teaching by the teacher determined by number of factors which includes the content to be taught, the objectives which the teacher plans to achieve availability of teaching and learning resources and the ability and willingness of the teacher to improvise if convectional teaching aids are not available, evaluation and follow-up activities and Individual learner differences (Ndirangu, 2007).
The methods used in teaching vary from one country to another, depending on the information or skills that is being taught and also be influenced by the aptitude and enthusiasm of the student. Various studies had been conducted concerning teaching methods, for example Asikhia (2010), found that, qualification of teachers and students? environment factors do not influence students poor performance but teachers? methods of teaching influence poor academic performance. Furthermore, the methods of teaching are dictated by the medium of instruction for example, where English is used, the method of instruction has to be more interactive than passive (Pillar and Skilling, 2005). It also argued that classroom teachers urgently need to know more about effective strategies for teaching English learners (Thompson, 2004). The commonly used teaching methods especially in developing countries are teacher centered (Guloba, Wokodola, and Bategeka, 2010), which are viewed to be somewhat ineffective in the impartation of knowledge.
These methods are no longer used in other counties. Problem-life learning as a teaching method is becoming increasing popular in education institutions as a tool to address the inadequacies of tradition teaching methods since its approaches do not encourage student to participate in the learning process (Teo and Wong, 2000). However, more recently there is an argument in education industry to adopt a learner- centered paradigm shift (Ndirangu, 2007), while other schools of thought are advocating participatory methods of teaching (Sajjad, 2011).
Despite these arrays of teaching methods being advocated in literature there is no one universally accepted method. The question still remains is which of these teaching methods contribute to failure or success of students? performance especially in developing countries like Tanzania where the causes of poor performance in secondary schools is not well understood.
1.3 Statement of the Research Problem
Students? performance in Nigeria secondary schools has been poor, and one of the reason cited is the type of methods of learning-teaching used. Education in Tanzania especially in community (ward) secondary schools, the majorities of students have failed or have not shown good performance in the examination results in summative evaluation (Laddunuri 2012). Marikinyo (2003), believes that the falling level of academic performance is attributed to teachers non-use of verbal reinforcement strategy. Several studies have been conducted about teaching methods in secondary schools in many parts of the world on students? performance, for example in USA (Haas 2002), Pakistan (Sajjad 2011), Nigeria (Barneka 2012), (Asikhia 2010), Uganda (Guloba, Wokadala and Bategeka, 2010) and Kenya (Njoroge et al., 2014). These studies indicated that the type of teaching methods used by teachers have an impact on students? performance.
Most of the studies conducted in Tanzania concentrated on factors affecting students performance and policy making rather than how teaching methods influence the Students? performance example (Laddunuri 2012), (Kkairuki, 2009) and (Kat ram, 2007). Another study by Mruma (2013) examined motivation of teachers in Secondary Schools. None of these studies have specifically examined the effect of teaching methods on student performance. This study bridges the gap and it examined effects of teaching methods on students? performance in Nigeria education institutions in public secondary schools in Nyamagana district ?Mwanza, Tanzania.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.4.1 General Objective
The general objective of the study is to examine the effect of teaching methods on student performance in Nigeria education in public secondary school in Nyamagana District-Mwanza, Tanzania.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives guided this study were as follows;
(i) To identify teaching methods used in instruction of science subjects in public
(ii) Secondary schools in Nyamagana District- Mwanza.
(iii) To assess students? perception of the appropriateness of teaching methods used in teaching in public secondary schools in Nyamagana ?District, Mwanza.
(iv) To determine the extent to which teaching methods impact on students? performance in public secondary schools in Nyamagana District, Mwanza.
1.4.3 Research Questions
The study answered the following questions
(i) What are teaching methods used in science subjects in public secondary school?
(ii) What are students? perceptions on the appropriateness of teaching methods use to teach Science subject in public secondary school in Nyamagana district?
(iii) To what extent teaching methods impact on students? performance in public secondary schools in Nyamagana district?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study is worth of academic research on the following grounds:
First, the study was expected to reveal the impact of teaching methods on students? performance in secondary schools and contributes to the body of knowledge. Second, the study expected to provide a foundation for future researchers on literature for the topic of effects of teaching methods on student performance in science subject in secondary schools. Third, the study findings expected to beneficial to policy makers especially the Ministry of education and vocational training to put forward policies that would greatly encourage fair distribution of resources in public institutions if better results are to be obtained. Fourth, the findings also expected to benefit teachers of Secondary Schools in Nyamagana district since it gave the ideas of most suitable teaching methods for use in science subjects. Finally, the findings of this research expected to add the body of knowledge on teaching methods and also basis for future research.
1.6 Scope and Delimitations
The study was focused on teaching methods used and their effect on students? performance in public secondary schools in Nyamagana district. The targeted population was students taking science subjects for at least one year. Two other categories are science teachers and school inspectors. Since teaching methods are so many in numbers the study was only concentrated on 7 of them which are citation, brainstorming, discussion, demonstration, lecture, presentation and seminar.
1.7 Definitions of Key Terms
Teaching methods is defined as a way of carrying actual teaching in the classroom (Ndirangu 2007). Teaching method refers to the variety of ways in which a learning task is managed to facilitate the learning process (Kimweri 2004). Participatory methods are methods which enable learners to be active involve in the learning process either as individual or group (Musuko 2010). Teacher ?centered method of teaching is the process of communication where very little or no room for active participation of learners (Kimweri 2004). Performance is the degree to which individuals achieve job or organization?s goals with effectiveness and efficiency. (Utuoh, and Mowo, 2000). | | CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Problem
The purpose of education is not only to make students literate but also to improve their knowledge, self-sufficiency and their ability to think rationally. In any society, education is tool for growth and progress because it not only imparts knowledge, skill and right type of values, but, also builds human capital which breeds, drives and sets technological innovation and economic growth. Many advances in science and technology have helped nations to promote efficiency, self reliance and the overall wellbeing of humanity through invention/innovation in telecommunication, transportation, health, agriculture etc.
In Nigeria, the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) clearly spells out the objectives of science teaching from pre-primary to tertiary level. Specifically, at the Secondary level, it entails equipping students to live effectively in our modern age of Science and Technology. It is aimed at all ages of learners of all abilities and interests. Science is a process that helps in the development of the society. The global change in science curriculum arising from knowledge explosion and new wave in science and technology development demands for qualitative science teaching.
From the range of evidence in the science education literature and studies by Awodi (1984), Akpan (1996), Madu (2004), Okebukola (2005), it is clear that science education in Nigeria is faced with numerous problems that need to be addressed. Such problems include the inability of students to engage in complex problem solving activities and also the inability of Nigerian Students to apply school knowledge to real life problems in work place. The problems need to be addressed so that the goal of equipping students to live efficiently in our modern ages of science and technology as well as the acquisition of appropriate skills, mental, physical and social abilities and competences to live in and contribute to the development of the society, as formulated in the Nigeria National Policy on Education (FRN, 1981; 1998.) is achieved.
Buseri (2010) contends that to meet up with the rapid scientific progress in technology requires the presence of well-trained, efficient, knowledgeable and skillful teachers who are versatile in discharging their duties and responsibility. The persistent poor performance of student in science subjects at School Certificate level and the studies by Achor (2003); Umoren and Ogong (2007); Ogbeba (2009) has given rise to an assumption that most science teachers in secondary schools in Nigeria probably do not make use of varying form of teaching strategies to be able to cope with some specific difficulties associated with the teaching of science. In order words, it implies that teachers are knowledgeable in science content but not in pedagogical aspects. Ezeliora (2004), pointed that most of the time, science is taught to the learners using descriptive or lecture method instead of hands- on approach.
Biology is defined as the basic science that deals with the study of living things, it attempts to understand the teeming diversity of life on earth, a diversity of level we are all part of (Adegbite, 2005). Life is not a simple concept, which may be one of the reasons why the teaching of biology is important (Adegbite, 2005). There are two major branches of biology namely; Zoology (the study of animals) and Botany (the study of plants) and sub-divisions such as ecology, physiology, histology, mycology, entomology, virology, anatomy, etc. The teaching of biology is very important because the knowledge of biology helps in improving the quality of life, as it helps to solve many societal problems relating to health, poverty, food shortage, crop production and environmental conservation.
The learning of biology in real life context is necessary for personal development and also, the development of scientific and technological world. The use of multiple and relevant learning and teaching strategies, and assessment practices will provide a basis for this. In any research work in Biology Education, more attention is placed on science education; this is because biology is one of the various subjects that explain science and also in Nigeria, biology is the general basic science subject. In an attempt to ensure result oriented biology delivery in
schools, Akubuilo (2004) suggested the use of activity-oriented strategies such as guided-inquiry, cooperative learning, demonstration, thinks and do, use of analogy and many others. Thus, research in Science Education in Nigeria has continued to seek better ways of teaching biology in order to improve academic performance of students (Okebukola, 1998).
A teaching strategy is a carefully designed classroom interaction that could be meticulously followed to teach a concept, topic or an idea. This brings out the idea of having numerous strategies. An innovative approach is referred to a design that is full of new or purposively reconstructed existing ideas. This explanation means the use of new or reconstructed existing ideas, methods and equipment or to combine various teaching strategies to develop a new one. Innovation in science education is increasingly needed in order to foster greater scientific literacy. Results from science education researches and the additional technological resources now available are contributing to a change of views with regard to the content, teaching/learning processes and methods and the role of teachers in science classes. Challenging new ways of teaching and learning are becoming available, but can only be implemented when teachers feel faithful to adopting them.
Innovation, according to Hornby (2010), is the introduction of new things,
ideas or a new way of doing things. Ikeobi (1987) defined innovation as the
introduction of something new at any point in time and that to be innovative is to break new grounds. Furthermore, Parlett (1979) added that innovation in teaching includes what might be regarded as evolutionary changes, experiments and applications of educational technology and that may result entirely to new curricula, or radically changed course structure.
Innovation is also defined as the implementation of new and improved knowledge, ideas, methods, processes, tools, equipment and machinery, which
leads to new and better products, services and processes (Williams, 1999).
Innovation in teaching is often about turning an ?invention? such as an idea, technology or technique into a product, process or service that is successful because it meets the needs of learners. Innovative teaching can be shown to assist students to develop not just technical skills and a common core of generic skills, but to support a wider range of capabilities which can assist the individual in the wider world of work and the community.
In science, innovative approach to teaching refers to a design full of new or reconstructed existing ideas. In order words, it implies that the approach does not have to be new, but it uses in that particular concept or topic may be novel. Roger (2003), described innovation as an idea, practice, or project that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. He further asserted that an innovation may have been invented a long time ago, but if individuals perceive it as new, then it may still be an innovation for them. In biology, like any other science subject, innovation can be in using new teaching methods, addition of new ideas in the curriculum content, learning experiences, introducing new/modern instructional materials as well as adopting a new change in evaluating the outcomes of biology learning. Innovation in biology is therefore the introduction of new ideas and methods, accompanied by an equally new change in the style of evaluating the outcomes of biology learning.
The need for innovative strategies in teaching biology is borne out of the fact that different situations-teaching topics, learners? cognitive readiness, concept being taught, skills intended to be developed in learners, demands for different teaching approaches. Therefore a teacher who is not aware of a variety of such strategies can neither attempt to use them in the first place or use them accurately. For instance, Achor (2008) considered some teaching modes as learners centered, interest arousing and activity oriented. These include conceptual change strategy, concept mapping, field trip, guided discovery, experimental and demonstration methods. He added that most of these are regarded as modes as teachers are required to employ a numbers of them while teaching.
Researchers have argued that many Nigerian Students do not possess the depth of knowledge on skills to assure either personal life success or national economic competence (Akpan, 1996). A major concern of most of these critics is also the apparent inability of these students to engage in complex problem solving activities and apply school knowledge to real life problems in work place settings. Therefore a teacher needs to be aware of different teaching strategies that are more effective and efficient in the teaching of topics and concepts. From all indications, it is observed that the present methods used in teaching science in secondary schools in Nigeria do not produce maximum results for the acquisition of science process skills by the students; therefore, there is need for the use of multiple teaching strategies including inquiry teaching by all teachers to meet the different learning styles in the classroom.
Ukoha (2008), described the concept of utilization presupposes, that appropriate instructional materials have not been identified, provided and selected for instruction, this statement can also be applied to teaching strategies. According to Blair (1988), many things happen to the student with learning difficulties when the difficulties remain unsolved. The effect of difficulties in learning upon students may not be far out of proportion to the apparent seriousness of the problem, because emotional pressure builds up around students? area of weakness, with this type of difficulty students may fall behind expectation or standard set by teachers, parents and school administrators but this difficulty can be solved through the utilization of appropriate innovative strategies.
Awareness of policies usually forms the backbone of the utilization and productivity level of any programme (Olumorin, 2008). He further asserted that it is when an individual is aware of the principles and content policy that such an individual can cultivate right type of attitude that will result in improved productivity. In the teachers? awareness of the innovative strategies, the decision of the teacher on the utilization of the innovative strategies will be based on the teachers? knowledge on the existence of the innovative strategies. Therefore a teacher who is not aware of the innovative strategies will neither attempt to use them in the first place or use them correctly and adequately.
The issue of what the problem is needs to be addressed in Biology Education, various teaching strategies exist, yet, poor teaching and learning of the subject seems to continue unabated. Then it is necessary to examine which of these strategies are learners-centered and which are teachers-centered. There is also the need to employ scientific method to teach biology at the secondary school level. Other methods may also have their usefulness if employed at the appropriate time for relevant purpose, this is only possible if the teacher is aware of their existence and uses them. Given the diversity and the views expressed by many lecture rooms and classrooms, the role of teachers needs to be different.
Some teaching methods involve the learners more than the others; add meaning to their lives, thereby reflecting in their role in the society which is aimed at in science.
This point is stressed by Barbosa, Jofili and Watts (2004), when they said very little of what science teachers teach will be directly used in these students live. It is on this basis that they advocated for science teachers to look beyond the utility argument of the subject to see what aspects of science that are needed to enrich the lives of the society with the understanding of people. Only the use of appropriate strategies can bring these into realization.
Teachers are said to gain extensive experience of successful and unsuccessful performances throughout their years of teaching, this assumption has generated in-depth research into how teachers who have been involved in teaching for different period of time perceive their teaching ( Soodak & Podell, 1997; Fives & Lisa 2008; Fives, 2010). It has been argued that experience improves teaching skills while pupils learn better at the hands of teachers who have taught them continuously over a period of years (Ijaiya, 2000). Teachers? teaching qualification is another quality of the teacher. This means that the qualification of a teacher matters when it comes to effective teaching. The availability of adequate and qualified science teachers cannot be compromised for the success of any science programme. It has been commented that, however well conceived a
programme is, however valid the theory that underlies it, and whatever the objectives of the plan are, will be determined by the nature, quality, attitudes, motivation and convictions of the classroom teacher (Obomanu & Akporehwe, 2011).
The sources of gender differences in educational outcomes have been the subject of considerable study and debate. One particularly contentious issue involves the possible role played by biological differences between males and females. One hypothesis is that male and female teachers have unique biases with respect to how they engage boys and girls in the classroom, similarly, cognitive process theories (Jones & Dindia, 2004), suggest that teachers may subtly communicate that they have different academic expectations of boys and girls. On teaching strategies, studies by Olagunju & Abiona (2008) revealed that male teachers? perception of utilization of instructional materials in teaching is higher than that of the female teachers. Khurshid and Zahur (2013) discovered that female teachers are more aware and utilize innovative teaching strategies than the male teachers. From these studies, there are no conclusive statements on the gender and teacher?s teaching experience related issues, investigated by the researchers and the studies cited above. As such, this study investigated the effects of teacher?s gender, teacher?s teaching experience and qualification on the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies to determine whether their effects had any significant influence or not.
Statement of the Problem
Science Education is said to be the most appropriate and fastest vehicle for the planned transformation of any society (Jegede, Lagoke & Oyebanji 1995).Despite its? importance to mankind, the effort of researchers to improve its?teaching and learning, as well as it being the general science subject, students? performance in biology compared to the other pure science subjects taught in Nigeria remains low. This observable problem has been blamed on a number of factors, namely, inadequate teachers, inadequate material resources, lack of using effective methodology for the teaching of the subject in secondary schools etc.
Further, it has been observed based on previous studies that the present methods used in teaching science in general and biology in particular in Nigeria secondary schools do not produce maximum result (Maduabum, 1994; Okebukola, 1998).
Researchers in biology education have studied on the various innovative
teaching strategies like, problem solving, field trips, individualism, cooperative learning, use of analogy, constructivism, computer assisted instruction, inquiry,among others and how they can be used to improve the teaching and learning of science in general and biology in particular, examples of such researchers are Olatoye & Adekoya (2009), Yusuf & Adedeji (2010), Oludipe & Oludipe (2010), Jiya (2011), Udeani & Okafor (2012) among others. Most of these researchers studied on the effectiveness of these strategies, some compared these strategies with conventional methods, Olatoye & Adekoya (2010) etc. without examining the awareness of in-service teachers on the existence of these strategies, their level of awareness and the degree of application of the ones they are aware of. Thus, this study was set out to investigate biology teachers? awareness and utilization of innovative teaching strategies in public schools in Oyo South senatorial district, Nigeria.
Similarly, Samba, Achor and Ogbeba (2010), examined science teachers awareness and utilization of 19 innovative teaching strategies in Benue State, but the variables involved were: age, teaching experience and profession and is different from this study as this involved only biology teachers and took into consideration teachers? gender, teaching experience and qualification. Khurshid & Zahur (2013), compared the awareness and utilization of 16 innovative teaching strategies in Private and public sector schools in Islamabad, the variables they took into consideration included teachers? gender, age, teaching experience and professional qualification. The study did not specify on any particular subject, and was general compared to this study which was specifically on Biology teaching at senior secondary level.
The Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the biology teachers? awareness and utilization of innovative strategies, specifically the study determined:
The secondary schools biology teachers? awareness of the innovative teaching strategies.
The level of awareness of the innovative teaching strategies by the biology teachers.
The extent to which the innovative strategies are put to use by the biology teachers.
The difference in the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies based on the biology teachers? teaching experience.
The difference in the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies based on the biology teachers? qualification.
The difference in the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies based on the biology teachers? gender.
Research Questions
1. Are the biology teachers in Oyo state, aware of the selected innovative teaching strategies?
2. To what extent are the biology teachers aware of the innovative teaching
strategies?
3. To what extent are the innovative strategies put into use in the teaching of
biology in Oyo state?
4. To what extent does the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies
differ based on the biology teachers? teaching experience?
5. Does qualification of the biology teachers influence the utilization of the
innovative teaching strategies?
6. How does the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies differ based on the biology teachers? gender?
Research Hypotheses
HO1: There is no significant difference in the utilization of the innovative
teaching strategies by experienced and less experienced biology teachers.
HO2: There is no significant difference in the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies by qualified and unqualified biology teachers.
HO3: There is no significant difference in the utilization of the innovative teaching strategies by male and female biology teachers.
Scope of the Study
The research work was limited in scope to the awareness of teachers and the utilization of innovative strategies in the teaching of Biology. It did not view other pure science subjects. The study was also limited to senior secondary school biology teachers. The study took into consideration twenty five (25) innovative strategies out of one thousand two hundred and seventy one (1271) instructional strategies listed by Kelly, (2010). The strategies were chosen based on their relevance to the teaching of biology as well as the studies of several Biology Education researchers. The study covered the nine Local Government Areas which make up the entire Ibarapa and Ibadan1 (Ibadan City), Educational Zones then part of Ibadan2 (Ibadan Less City), Educational Zone, known as Oyo South Senatorial District of Oyo State taking into consideration three out of the six Educational Zones in Oyo State. The study was on public secondary schools in Oyo South Senatorial district and not all schools in Oyo state.
Significance of the Study
In an effort to improve the teaching of biology in Nigerian secondary schools and make the learning of biology more attractive to students, this study may make the following important contributions to knowledge and education.
This study would provide science educators and government with detailed information about the actual picture of biology teaching, biology learning, and effective ways of improving the situation. It provides information on different innovative strategies that can be used to improve biology teaching and learning in senior secondary schools in Nigeria.
The results of this investigation will probably be of great help to students in learning and acquiring knowledge or skills in biology since it focuses on modern methods of teaching what would have been abstract ideas. It would be of benefit to teaching as it would make the teachers to be more aware of the innovative strategies that can be used to improve and make teaching process more efficient and effective. It may influence teachers? decision on strategies they can use to teach different topics effectively.
This investigation may be of benefit in teachers? education as it provides teachers educators with the actual picture of science education generally and biology education in particular, it makes them to be aware of various innovative strategies that can be used to teach effectively, thereby enabling them to produce highly innovative teachers, who will be able determine and use the strategies that best suit the topics and concepts they are to teach when in service.
It may also help Curriculum designers, Government agencies and school Proprietors in organizing workshops and providing in-service trainings about new ways of teaching biology for teachers. This study may help biology and even other science subjects textbook publishers in designing their textbooks and materials with the teaching strategies embedded within them. The findings of this study may also serve as a basis for the identification of the most appropriate teaching strategies for different topics and the production of suitable instructional materials.
This study might help in the area of curriculum development by influencing the decision of the curriculum developers to introduce the innovative strategies at the initial stage of educational process. In the area of educational research, this study may be of relevance as it encourages further research into the study for future researchers who would pursue studies similar to this. Lastly this study is hoped to influence the education policy of the government to giving room for development of new educational policies that will help in increasing the quality of education in the Nation at large.
Definition of Terms
The following terms and variables are clarified as used in this study: Innovative Teaching Strategies: These are carefully designed interactions which may be new or recently adopted that are extensively used to ensure effective learning. They involve imparting knowledge in such a way that students are
engaged and challenged, resulting in greater students? interest, a deeper level of understanding and lasting change in student perception of the topic.
Innovative strategies: These are generalized plans for lessons that result in a transformative educational experience for the students. Innovative approach is a design that is full of new or purposively reconstructing existing ideas.
Awareness: This is biology teachers? knowledge on the existence of innovative teaching strategies.
Utilization: This is the act of putting innovative strategies to use in the teaching of biology in secondary schools.
Qualified Biology Teachers: These are biology teachers in secondary schools with relevant academic qualification which must include at least: Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Science Education (biology) or B. Sc. (Biology) & PGDE. Unqualified Biology Teachers: These are biology teachers in secondary schools that do not have Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Science Education (Biology) or Postgraduate Diploma in Education. | |
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