| Description | ABSTRACT
The extracts of the root part of Napoleonaea heudelotii were subjected to phytochemical and anti-microbial studies. Extraction was done by continuous Soxhlet extraction using methanol. The phytochemical screening of the crude methanol extract, chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions revealed the presence of carbohydrate, cardiac glycosides, saponins, steroids, triterpenes, flavanoids and tannins. The result of the antimicrobial screening of the crude methanol extract, ethyl acetate and chloroform fractions showed activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, and Candida albicans. However, the chloroform fraction was the most active fraction against the test microoganisms. The zone of inhibition of the methanol extract ranged between 16 mm and 21 mm, the chloroform fraction ranged between 17 mm and 25 mm while the ethyl acetate fraction ranged between 15 mm and 21 mm. The MIC results of methanol extract, ranged between 12.5 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml, chloroform fraction ranged between 12.5 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml, while ethyl acetate ranged between 6.25 mg/ml and 1.625 mg/ml. The MBC of methanol extract and chloroform fraction ranged between 12.5 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml, while that of ethyl acetate fraction ranged between 6.2 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml. The chloroform fraction being the most active fraction was subjected to extensive chromatographic purification; white crystalline solid labelled NHPE were isolated. The structures of the isolated compounds were determined to be a mixture à-amyrin and ?-amyrin using 1D and 2D NMR. | ABSTRACT
The Pulverized stem bark of Indigofera arrectawas exhaustively extracted with methanol and concentrated in vacuo using rotary evaporator at 40 0C.The extract was later subjected to solvent partitioning to yield soluble extracts of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, chloroform, and methanol. Genernal phytochemical screening of the fractions revealed the presence of secondary metabolites such as cardiac glycoside,steroid, terpenes flavonoids and tannins. The antimicrobial activity against S. aureus,S. pyogenes,S.feacalis, S.typhii, E.coli C. ulcerans,P. vulgaris and C.albicans was tested using the tube dilution and agar diffusion methods as outlined by the NCCLS. The results of the antimicrobial activity as indicated by the zonesof inhibition of growth of microorganism ranged from 20mm to 40mm for the n-hexane extract, 16mm to 21mm for ethyl acetate extract and 20mm to 27mm for the methanol extract. The MIC result for the n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts ranged from 7.5mg/ml to 15mg/ml. The MIC of 15mg/ml exhibited by the n-hexane extract against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria indicates broad spectrum activity of Indigofera arrect. The n-hexane fractions was subjected to Column Chromatography using silica gel to yield 87 fractions, which were combined based on their thin layer chromatography analysis and recrystallized in methanol to give a pure white crystalline powder, which melts at 144oC. The structure of the isolated compound was established by spectroscopic analysis and by direct comparison of the data obtained with those reported in literature to be Stigmasterol (3?,22E-Sigmasta-5,22-dien-3-ol). | ABSTRACT
This project is on Phytochemical and antimicrobial studies of the methanol extract of the root of Napoleonaea Heudelotti (A.Juss). The extracts of the root part of Napoleonaea heudelotii were subjected to phytochemical and anti-microbial studies. Extraction was done by continuous Soxhlet extraction using methanol. The phytochemical screening of the crude methanol extract, chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions revealed the presence of carbohydrate, cardiac glycosides, saponins, steroids, triterpenes, flavanoids and tannins. The result of the antimicrobial screening of the crude methanol extract, ethyl acetate and chloroform fractions showed activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, and Candida albicans. However, the chloroform fraction was the most active fraction against the test microoganisms. The zone of inhibition of the methanol extract ranged between 16 mm and 21 mm, the chloroform fraction ranged between 17 mm and 25 mm while the ethyl acetate fraction ranged between 15 mm and 21 mm. The MIC results of methanol extract, ranged between 12.5 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml, chloroform fraction ranged between 12.5 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml, while ethyl acetate ranged between 6.25 mg/ml and 1.625 mg/ml. The MBC of methanol extract and chloroform fraction ranged between 12.5 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml, while that of ethyl acetate fraction ranged between 6.2 mg/ml and 1.562 mg/ml. The chloroform fraction being the most active fraction was subjected to extensive chromatographic purification; white crystalline solid labelled NHPE were isolated. The structures of the isolated compounds were determined to be a mixture ?-amyrin and ?-amyrin using 1D and 2D NMR. | Abstract
This research is on Evaluation of some chemical constituents of selected energy drinks. This research work examined and compares the physicochemical properties and some chemical constituents of selected energy drinks. Fourteen (14) brands of energy drinks samples consisting eleven (11) liquid and three (3) powdered forms were randomly purchased. All samples were analyzed for their physicochemical properties (pH, turbidity, conductivity and total dissolved solids), trace and heavy metals, aspartame, sugar and caffeine contents. Results showed that the physicochemical properties (i.e. pH, turbidity, conductivity and total dissolved solids) ranged from 4.47 ñ 0.012 - 5.96 ñ 0.012, 8 ñ 0.577
? 592 ñ 1.155 NTU, 2.21 ñ 0.006 ? 1975 ñ 1.732 æs/cm, and 243 ñ 0.577 ? 1064 ñ 0.577 mg/L respectively. Energy drinks analyzed all fell within the FDA recommended range for the physicochemical properties analyzed. Iron, calcium, zinc and potassium were found in all the energy drinks and their concentration ranged from 1.961 ñ 0.0003 - 0.294 ñ 0.0005 mg/L, 2.763 ñ 0.0009 - 19.310 ñ 0.0015 mg/L, 0.045 ñ 0.0001 - 13.887 ñ 0.0037 mg/L, and 2.0 to 2500 mg/L respectively. The copper, lead and manganese concentration of energy drinks ranged from 0.002 ñ 0.0002 - 0.102 ñ 0.0003 mg/L, 0.028 ñ 0.0006 - 0.209
ñ 0.0009 mg/L and 0.003 ñ 0.0001 - 0.024 ñ 0.0002 mg/L respectively. The concentration of copper and manganese were below the MCL of 1.0 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L respectively while lead had a concentration above the MCL of 0.01 mg/L. Cadmium was not detected in all energy drinks except for sample EJ which had a concentration of 0.102 ñ 0.0003 mg/L and exceeded the MCL of 0.005 mg/L. The caffeine, aspartame and sugar concentrations ranged from 1.11 mg/L ? 2487.13 mg/L, 6.51 mg/L ? 1491.19 mg/L, and 16.98 ? 1686.73 mg/L respectively. Caffeine and aspartame concentrations in all the energy drink samples were below the FDA set standard of 400 mg/L and 3000 mg/L respectively except for sample AL which had a concentration above the set standard for
caffeine. Though the analyzed parameters were mostly below the set standards, especially caffeine, aspartame and sugar, it is important that the pattern of consumption of these drinks must be monitored to minimize ingestion of excess doses of harmful substances to prevent the reported adverse effects. | Abstract
The optimization of biodiesel production from two non-edible oils and studies of their fuel and biodegradability properties was carried out. The two oil feedstocks (Yellow oleander and Castor oils) were extracted from their seeds using an oil expeller and their physicochemical properties such as iodine value, moisture content, saponification value, acid value, viscosity, specific gravity and refractive index were determined. Most of these properties were within the acceptable limit of American Standard Testing Method (ASTM). The methyl esters were optimized using methanol as solvent and by varying conditions like reaction temperature, reaction time, type and concentration of catalyst, molar ratio of methanol and oil. For maximum bio diesel production, the transesterification reaction showed that the concentration of alkali catalyst was 0.8 % sodium hydroxide, 0.33 %v/v alcohol/oil ratio, 1 hr reaction time, 60 0C temperature and excess alcohol 150 %v/v. Optimized parameters for production of biodiesel through base catalyzed transesterification gave maximum yield of 96 % and 98 % for yellow oleander and castor oil respectively. The Yellow Oleander Methyl Ester (YOME) and Castor Oil Methyl Ester (COME) and their diesel blends were comparatively analysed for fuel properties such as flash point, relative density, kinematic viscosity, calorific value, distillation, sulphur, phosphorous, water content, cetane number and acid number . The methyl ester of yellow oleander was found to have properties closer to ASTM D 6751 fuel specifications than that of castor oil. It is further observed from the results that the biodiesel from yellow oleander and castor oil are environmentally friendly, such that after spillage, it will take about 28 days for them to have biodegradability of 82.4 and 87.3 for YOME and COME respectively. This is an advantage over petro-diesel which was found to have biodegradability of 25.29 in 28 days. | |
| Content | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants have been identified and used throughout human history. Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals (Babalola, 2009). Chemical compounds in plant mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effects. Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) is recognized as an effective way to discover future medicines. In 2001, researchers identified 122 compounds used in modern medicine which were derived from ethnomedical plant sources (Babalola, 2009). Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use, as herbal remedies, including aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium. Treatment of diseases is almost universal among non-industrialized societies, and is often more affordable than purchasing expensive modern pharmaceuticals (Beltrame et al., 2002). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care (Beltrame et al., 2002). Studies in the United States and Europe have shown that the use of herbal madicine is less common in clinical settings, but has become increasingly more in recent years as scientific evidence about it effectiveness has become more widely available. The annual global export value
1
of pharmaceutical plants in 2011 accounted for over US$ 2.2 billion. Plants have continued to be major source of medicine either in the form of traditional medicine preparations or as pure active principles (Hill, 2011). This has made it important to identify plants with useful therapeutic actions for possible isolation and characterization of their active constituents. About 80 % of the world population relies on the use of traditional medicine which is predominantly based on plant materials (Brunton et al., 2006). Plant have been part of our lives since beginning of time, we get numerous products from plants, most of them, not only good and beneficial but also crucial to our existence. The use of plant to heal or combats illness is probably as old as human kind. Out of these simple beginning came the pharmaceutical industry. Yet the current view of plant is very different from how it all started. The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternate form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the available antibiotics has led researchers to investigate the antimicrobial herbal extract (WHO, 1993). In Africa, particularly Nigeria is rich in plants which are used in herbal medicine to cure diseases and to heal injuries. Some of these plants exhibit a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities such as antihelmenthics, oxytoxic laxative (Hostettmann et al., 2012). The secondary metabolites of plant provide human with numerous biological active components which have been used extensively as drugs, foods, additives, flavours, insecticides and chemicals. They exhibited remarkable biological activities, which include inhibitory effects on enzymes, modulatory effects on some cell types, protect against allergies antioxidants (Dongmo et al., 2001).
2
1.2 SECONDARY METABOLITES
1.2.1 Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms e.g Coniine (1) and Quinine (2). This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulphur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms (Kumar et al., 2010). They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals (Kumar et al., 2010).
N CH3
H
Coniine (1)
N
H3C
N
Quinine (2)
3
1.2.2 Flavonoid
Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites. Flavonoids are also described as non-ketone polyhydroxy polyphenol compounds which are more specifically termed as flavanoids e.g Isoflavan (3) and Neoflavonoid (4). The three cycle or heterocycles in the flavonoid backbone are generally called ring A, B and C. Ring A usually shows a phloroglucinol substitution pattern. Flavonoids are widely distributed in plants, fulfilling many functions (Dongmo et al., 2001). Flavonoids are the most important plant pigments for flower coloration, producing yellow or red/blue pigmentation in petals designed to attract pollinator animals. In higher plants, flavonoids are involved in UV filtration, symbiotic nitrogen fixation and floral pigmentation. They may also act as chemical messengers, physiological regulators, and cell cycle inhibitors (Kumar et al., 2010).
O O O
Isoflavan (3) Neoflavonoid (4)
4
1.2.3 Terpene
Compounds classified as terpenes constitute what is arguably the largest and most diverse class of natural products. A majority of these compounds are found only in plants, but some of the larger and more complex terpenes occur in animals, e.g Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5), is the basic unit in which terpene exist in natural organism. Instead, the number and structural organization of carbons is a definitive characteristic. Terpenes may be considered to be made up of isoprene (more accurately isopentane) units, an empirical feature known as the isoprene rule (Dongmo et al., 2001).
CH3 O
O
H2C O P O P OH
HO OH
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5)
5
1.2.4 Steroid
The important classes of lipids called steroids are actually metabolic derivatives of terpenes, but they are customarily treated as a separate group. Steroids may be recognized by their tetracyclic skeleton, consisting of three fused six-membered and one five-membered ring. These rings are synthesized by biochemical processes from cyclization of a thirty-carbon chain. Hundreds of steroids are found in animals, fungi and plants e.g cholesterol (6), the sex homones, estradiol and testosterone (Kaisar et al., 2011).
H3C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
HO
Cholesterol (6)
6
1.2.5 Saponins
Saponins are a class of chemical compounds found in abundance in various plant species. More specifically, they are amphipathic glycosides grouped by the soap-like foaming they produce when shaken in aqueous solutions, and structurally by having one or more hydrophilic glycoside moieties combined with a lipophilic triterpene derivative (Kaisar et al., 2011).
Saponins have historically been understood to be plant-derived, but they have also been isolated from marine organisms. Saponins are indeed found in many plants, and derive their name from the soapwort plant (genus Saponaria, family Caryophyllaceae), the root of which was used historically as a soap. Saponins are also found in the botanical family
Sapindaceae, with its defining genus Sapindus (soapberry or soapnut), and in the closely related families Aceraceae (maples) and Hippocastanaceae. An example of saponin is solanine (7). It is also found heavily in Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Gynostemma, Cucurbitaceae) in a form called gypenosides, and ginseng or red ginseng (Panax, Araliaceae) in a form called ginsenosides. Within these families, this class of chemical compounds is found in various parts of the plant: leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, blossom and fruit. Commercial formulations of plant-derived saponins, e.g., from the soap bark (or soapbark) tree, Quillaja saponaria, and those from other sources are available via controlled manufacturing processes, which make them of use as chemical and biomedical reagents. Saponins are used widely for their effects on ammonia emissions in animal feeding. The mode of action seems to be an inhibition of the urease enzyme, which splits up excreted urea in feces into ammonia and carbon dioxide (Kaisar et al., 2011).
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants have been identified and used throughout human history. Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals (Babalola, 2009). Chemical compounds in plant mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effects. Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) is recognized as an effective way to discover future medicines. In 2001, researchers identified 122 compounds used in modern medicine which were derived from ethnomedical plant sources (Babalola, 2009). Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use, as herbal remedies, including aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium. Treatment of diseases is almost universal among non-industrialized societies, and is often more affordable than purchasing expensive modern pharmaceuticals (Beltrame et al., 2002). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care (Beltrame et al., 2002). Studies in the United States and Europe have shown that the use of herbal madicine is less common in clinical settings, but has become increasingly more in recent years as scientific evidence about it effectiveness has become more widely available. The annual global export value
1
of pharmaceutical plants in 2011 accounted for over US$ 2.2 billion. Plants have continued to be major source of medicine either in the form of traditional medicine preparations or as pure active principles (Hill, 2011). This has made it important to identify plants with useful therapeutic actions for possible isolation and characterization of their active constituents. About 80 % of the world population relies on the use of traditional medicine which is predominantly based on plant materials (Brunton et al., 2006). Plant have been part of our lives since beginning of time, we get numerous products from plants, most of them, not only good and beneficial but also crucial to our existence. The use of plant to heal or combats illness is probably as old as human kind. Out of these simple beginning came the pharmaceutical industry. Yet the current view of plant is very different from how it all started. The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternate form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the available antibiotics has led researchers to investigate the antimicrobial herbal extract (WHO, 1993). In Africa, particularly Nigeria is rich in plants which are used in herbal medicine to cure diseases and to heal injuries. Some of these plants exhibit a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities such as antihelmenthics, oxytoxic laxative (Hostettmann et al., 2012). The secondary metabolites of plant provide human with numerous biological active components which have been used extensively as drugs, foods, additives, flavours, insecticides and chemicals. They exhibited remarkable biological activities, which include inhibitory effects on enzymes, modulatory effects on some cell types, protect against allergies antioxidants (Dongmo et al., 2001).
2
1.2 SECONDARY METABOLITES
1.2.1 Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms e.g Coniine (1) and Quinine (2). This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulphur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms (Kumar et al., 2010). They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals (Kumar et al., 2010).
N CH3
H
Coniine (1)
N
H3C
N
Quinine (2)
3
1.2.2 Flavonoid
Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites. Flavonoids are also described as non-ketone polyhydroxy polyphenol compounds which are more specifically termed as flavanoids e.g Isoflavan (3) and Neoflavonoid (4). The three cycle or heterocycles in the flavonoid backbone are generally called ring A, B and C. Ring A usually shows a phloroglucinol substitution pattern. Flavonoids are widely distributed in plants, fulfilling many functions (Dongmo et al., 2001). Flavonoids are the most important plant pigments for flower coloration, producing yellow or red/blue pigmentation in petals designed to attract pollinator animals. In higher plants, flavonoids are involved in UV filtration, symbiotic nitrogen fixation and floral pigmentation. They may also act as chemical messengers, physiological regulators, and cell cycle inhibitors (Kumar et al., 2010).
O O O
Isoflavan (3) Neoflavonoid (4)
4
1.2.3 Terpene
Compounds classified as terpenes constitute what is arguably the largest and most diverse class of natural products. A majority of these compounds are found only in plants, but some of the larger and more complex terpenes occur in animals, e.g Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5), is the basic unit in which terpene exist in natural organism. Instead, the number and structural organization of carbons is a definitive characteristic. Terpenes may be considered to be made up of isoprene (more accurately isopentane) units, an empirical feature known as the isoprene rule (Dongmo et al., 2001).
CH3 O
O
H2C O P O P OH
HO OH
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5)
5
1.2.4 Steroid
The important classes of lipids called steroids are actually metabolic derivatives of terpenes, but they are customarily treated as a separate group. Steroids may be recognized by their tetracyclic skeleton, consisting of three fused six-membered and one five-membered ring. These rings are synthesized by biochemical processes from cyclization of a thirty-carbon chain. Hundreds of steroids are found in animals, fungi and plants e.g cholesterol (6), the sex homones, estradiol and testosterone (Kaisar et al., 2011).
H3C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
HO
Cholesterol (6)
6
1.2.5 Saponins
Saponins are a class of chemical compounds found in abundance in various plant species. More specifically, they are amphipathic glycosides grouped by the soap-like foaming they produce when shaken in aqueous solutions, and structurally by having one or more hydrophilic glycoside moieties combined with a lipophilic triterpene derivative (Kaisar et al., 2011).
Saponins have historically been understood to be plant-derived, but they have also been isolated from marine organisms. Saponins are indeed found in many plants, and derive their name from the soapwort plant (genus Saponaria, family Caryophyllaceae), the root of which was used historically as a soap. Saponins are also found in the botanical family
Sapindaceae, with its defining genus Sapindus (soapberry or soapnut), and in the closely related families Aceraceae (maples) and Hippocastanaceae. An example of saponin is solanine (7). It is also found heavily in Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Gynostemma, Cucurbitaceae) in a form called gypenosides, and ginseng or red ginseng (Panax, Araliaceae) in a form called ginsenosides. Within these families, this class of chemical compounds is found in various parts of the plant: leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, blossom and fruit. Commercial formulations of plant-derived saponins, e.g., from the soap bark (or soapbark) tree, Quillaja saponaria, and those from other sources are available via controlled manufacturing processes, which make them of use as chemical and biomedical reagents. Saponins are used widely for their effects on ammonia emissions in animal feeding. The mode of action seems to be an inhibition of the urease enzyme, which splits up excreted urea in feces into ammonia and carbon dioxide (Kaisar et al., 2011). | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of a drug
A drug can be described as any chemical substance that has no nutritional value when
introduced into the body but causes some physiological effects within the system (Mbah, 2000). Drugs are classified under pharmaceuticals. Pharmaceutical drug, according to Dey (2006), also refers to as medicine or medicament, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of diseases.
Some pharmaceuticals occur naturally in plants. These can be called phyto pharmaceuticals. By the strictest definition, they are drugs or chemicals that may have health related effects but are not considered essential nutrients. Protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are regarded as essential nutrients. Some pharmaceuticals found in plants include gedunin and nimbolide from Azadirachta indica (Neem) (Khalid and Duddeck, 1993); santonin, a sesquiterpenoid lactone is found in species of Artemisia which grows in Asia, quinine and alkaloid occurs in the bark of cinchona tree; penincillin- a beta-lactam is produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium (Finar, 2003) and reserpine-an alkaloid is isolated from Rauwolfia plant.
1.2Medicinal plants
According to biblical records, Prophet Ezekiel reported that the fruits will serve as food and their leaves for healing (Ezekiel 47:12). Thus, the use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to thousands of years ago as the earliest humans used various plants to treat illness
1
(Dey, 2006). Medicinal plants or healing herbs, as they are called, are used in treating and preventing specific ailments and diseases and as such are considered to play a beneficial role in health care.
Srivastava et al., (1996) earlier stated that hundreds of plant species are recognized as having medicinal values and four out of every five of those plants are collected from the wild forest while most are from the flora of developing countries. The medicinal properties or values may be present in one or all the plants parts like roots, stem, back, leaves, flower, fruit or seeds.
In fact, with all the progress in synthetic chemistry and biotechnology, plants are still indispensable source of drugs and natural products on the basis of their therapeutics (Lawn, 1993).
Some common medicinal plants that occur in our locality includeAzadirachta indica
(Neem), Ocimum gratissiumpersea americana, Vernonica amygdaline, Astonia boonei,
Zanthoxyllium gilleti and Bucchslozia coreacae among others.
1.3 Medicinal plant research
The efficacy of these medicinal plants is based on the presence of secondary metabolites which belong to a group of compounds called natural products. Natural products are those chemical compounds derived from living organisms, plants, animals, insects and the study of natural products is the investigation of their structure formation, applications and purpose in the organisms. The drugs or active ingredients derived from natural products are usually secondary metabolites, for example, terpenes, flavonoids, saponins and alkaloids and their derivatives. Today, these compounds must be pure and highly characterized compounds through scientific research.
2
Medicinal plant research starts by people carrying out general screening of plants which are collected either randomly or based on local reputations as medicinal plants after botanically identified by a reputable authority or plant taxonomist. This screening consists mainly of solvent extraction and standard tests of the extracts for the presence of such class of compounds or secondary metabolites as alkaloids, saponins and phenolic compounds. This in itself may not lead to the discovery of any new biologically active compound if carried out competently and consistently but it could provide data from which plants with potential biological activity could be selected for further detailed study (Adjanohoun et al., 1991,Farnsworth,1996).
The extracts are then fractionated with a view of isolating pure compounds. Modern isolation techniques include all types of chromatography often guided by bioassays to isolate the active compounds. The chromatographic procedures include absorption and partition chromatography in columns, thin layer and recently high performance liquid Chromatography. The structures of the isolatein modern times are elucidated primarily by spectroscopic techniques. The compounds can be identified as already known compounds or entirely new compounds.
1.3.1 AIM
1. The aim of this work was to justify or otherwise the claimed ethnomedicinal uses of the plant
1.3.2 OBJECTIVES
I. Collection, proper botanical identification, drying and pulverizing of the plant.
3
II. Extraction of the powdered plant material using different solvents based on the elutropic series i.e from non-polar to most polar.
III.The extract of this plant would be subjected to phytochemical and antimicrobial
screening
IV. Analytical separations involving several consecutive steps of chromatographic
techniques.
V. Structural elucidation of the isolated compound(s) using spectral techniques
1.4:SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH
The scope of this research work would be:
1. The phytochemical screening, antibacterial, antifungal screening, isolation, characterization and structural elucidation of the active principles of Indigofera arrecta.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
The need to know the active ingredients in the stem of Indigofera arrecta which are responsible for the cure/treatment of various ailments such as epilepsy, sores treatment, diarrhea and ulcer and to have scientific evidence of the claims of the ethnomedicinal practices of the stem of Indigofera arrecta. | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This project is on Phytochemical and antimicrobial studies of the methanol extract of the root of Napoleonaea Heudelotti (A.Juss). Medicinal plants have been identified and used throughout human history. Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals (Babalola, 2009). Chemical compounds in plant mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effects. Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) is recognized as an effective way to discover future medicines. In 2001, researchers identified 122 compounds used in modern medicine which were derived from ethnomedical plant sources (Babalola, 2009). Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use, as herbal remedies, including aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium. Treatment of diseases is almost universal among non-industrialized societies, and is often more affordable than purchasing expensive modern pharmaceuticals (Beltrame et al., 2002). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care (Beltrame et al., 2002). Studies in the United States and Europe have shown that the use of herbal madicine is less common in clinical settings, but has become increasingly more in recent years as scientific evidence about it effectiveness has become more widely available. The annual global export value of pharmaceutical plants in 2011 accounted for over US$ 2.2 billion. Plants have continued to be major source of medicine either in the form of traditional medicine preparations or as pure active principles (Hill, 2011). This has made it important to identify plants with useful therapeutic actions for possible isolation and characterization of their active constituents. About 80 % of the world population relies on the use of traditional medicine which is predominantly based on plant materials (Brunton et al., 2006). Plant have been part of our lives since beginning of time, we get numerous products from plants, most of them, not only good and beneficial but also crucial to our existence. The use of plant to heal or combats illness is probably as old as human kind. Out of these simple beginning came the pharmaceutical industry. Yet the current view of plant is very different from how it all started. The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternate form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the available antibiotics has led researchers to investigate the antimicrobial herbal extract (WHO, 1993). In Africa, particularly Nigeria is rich in plants which are used in herbal medicine to cure diseases and to heal injuries. Some of these plants exhibit a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities such as antihelmenthics, oxytoxic laxative (Hostettmann et al., 2012). The secondary metabolites of plant provide human with numerous biological active components which have been used extensively as drugs, foods, additives, flavours, insecticides and chemicals. They exhibited remarkable biological activities, which include inhibitory effects on enzymes, modulatory effects on some cell types, protect against allergies antioxidants (Dongmo et al., 2001).
1.2 SECONDARY METABOLITES
1.2.1 Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms e.g Coniine (1) and Quinine (2). This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulphur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms (Kumar et al., 2010). They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals (Kumar et al., 2010).
1.2.2 Flavonoid
Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites. Flavonoids are also described as non-ketone polyhydroxy polyphenol compounds which are more specifically termed as flavanoids e.g Isoflavan (3) and Neoflavonoid (4). The three cycle or heterocycles in the flavonoid backbone are generally called ring A, B and C. Ring A usually shows a phloroglucinol substitution pattern. Flavonoids are widely distributed in plants, fulfilling many functions (Dongmo et al., 2001). Flavonoids are the most important plant pigments for flower coloration, producing yellow or red/blue pigmentation in petals designed to attract pollinator animals. In higher plants, flavonoids are involved in UV filtration, symbiotic nitrogen fixation and floral pigmentation. They may also act as chemical messengers, physiological regulators, and cell cycle inhibitors (Kumar et al., 2010).
1.2.3 Terpene
Compounds classified as terpenes constitute what is arguably the largest and most diverse class of natural products. A majority of these compounds are found only in plants, but some of the larger and more complex terpenes occur in animals, e.g Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5), is the basic unit in which terpene exist in natural organism. Instead, the number and structural organization of carbons is a definitive characteristic. Terpenes may be considered to be made up of isoprene (more accurately isopentane) units, an empirical feature known as the isoprene rule (Dongmo et al., 2001).
1.2.4 Steroid
The important classes of lipids called steroids are actually metabolic derivatives of terpenes, but they are customarily treated as a separate group. Steroids may be recognized by their tetracyclic skeleton, consisting of three fused six-membered and one five-membered ring. These rings are synthesized by biochemical processes from cyclization of a thirty-carbon chain. Hundreds of steroids are found in animals, fungi and plants e.g cholesterol (6), the sex homones, estradiol and testosterone (Kaisar et al., 2011).
1.2.5 Saponins
Saponins are a class of chemical compounds found in abundance in various plant species. More specifically, they are amphipathic glycosides grouped by the soap-like foaming they produce when shaken in aqueous solutions, and structurally by having one or more hydrophilic glycoside moieties combined with a lipophilic triterpene derivative (Kaisar et al., 2011).
Saponins have historically been understood to be plant-derived, but they have also been isolated from marine organisms. Saponins are indeed found in many plants, and derive their name from the soapwort plant (genus Saponaria, family Caryophyllaceae), the root of which was used historically as a soap. Saponins are also found in the botanical family
Sapindaceae, with its defining genus Sapindus (soapberry or soapnut), and in the closely related families Aceraceae (maples) and Hippocastanaceae. An example of saponin is solanine (7). It is also found heavily in Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Gynostemma, Cucurbitaceae) in a form called gypenosides, and ginseng or red ginseng (Panax, Araliaceae) in a form called ginsenosides. Within these families, this class of chemical compounds is found in various parts of the plant: leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, blossom and fruit. Commercial formulations of plant-derived saponins, e.g., from the soap bark (or soapbark) tree, Quillaja saponaria, and those from other sources are available via controlled manufacturing processes, which make them of use as chemical and biomedical reagents. Saponins are used widely for their effects on ammonia emissions in animal feeding. The mode of action seems to be an inhibition of the urease enzyme, which splits up excreted urea in feces into ammonia and carbon dioxide (Kaisar et al., 2011).
1.2.6 Tannins
A tannin is an astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound that binds to and precipitates proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.
The term tannin (from tanna, an Old High German word for oak or fir tree, as in Tannenbaum) refers to the use of wood tannins from oak in tanning animal hides into leather; hence the words "tan" and "tanning" for the treatment of leather. However, the term "tannin" by extension is widely applied to any large polyphenolic compound containing sufficient hydroxyls and other suitable groups (such as carboxyls) to form strong complexes with various macro molecules (Kaisar et al., 2011).
The tannin compounds (e.g Gallic acid (8)) are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth regulation. The astringency from the tannins is what causes the dry and puckery feeling in the mouth following the consumption of unripened fruit or red wine. Likewise, the destruction or modification of tannins with time plays an important role in the ripening of fruit and the aging of wine (Kaisar et al., 2011). . | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This research is on Evaluation of some chemical constituents of selected energy drinks. Energy drinks refer to beverages that contain large doses of caffeine and other legal stimulants such as taurine, carbohydrates, glucuronolactone, inositol, niacin, panthenol, and ?-complex vitamins which are considered as source of energy (Attila and akir, 2009). The consumption of readily available energy drinks has increased significantly with young adults forming the largest part of the consumers. History of energy drink dates back to 1987 when Red Bull was introduced in Austria. It became more popular in the 1990s following its introduction to the United States. Since then the sale of this drink has increased exponentially. In 2006, the energy drink market grew by 80% (Foran et al., 2011). This is because manufactures claim the drinks can boost energy levels as well as physical endurance, improve concentration and reaction speed (Van den Eynde et al., 2008).
In recent years, a number of different energy drinks have been introduced in the Nigerian market to provide an energy boost or as dietary supplements. These drinks are marketed specifically to children and young adults. These products have been used for various reasons. A survey conducted among college students shows that 67% of students admitted using energy drinks to cope with insufficient sleep, 65% mentioned increasing energy and 54% use it for fun at parties; 50% for studying or completing a major course project, 45% used it while driving a car for a long period of time and 17% for treating hangover (Malinauskas et al., 2007). These products have also been used to reduce the depressor effect of alcohol or even to gain social status (Ferreira et al., 2004; Kaminer, 2010).
Many energy drinks are promoted as being nutraceutical foods, boosting health, energy, or otherwise having sought-after benefits. There is some concern among health professionals that these beverages, and the drinking behaviours of the targeted consumers, may in fact have adverse health consequences. The most commonly reported adverse effects include insomnia, nervousness, headache, and tachycardia (Clauson et al., 2008). In a recent study, heavy consumption of energy drinks was attributed to new onset seizures in four patients (Iyadurai and Chung, 2007) and hospitalization of individuals with pre-existing mental illness (Chelben et al., 2008).
1.1 Energy Drinks
Energy drinks first appeared in Europe and Asia in the 1960s in response to consumer demand for a dietary supplement that would result in increased energy (Reissig et al.,
2008). In 1962, a Japanese company, Taisho Pharmaceuticals, launched Lipovitan D, one of the very first energy drinks, which is still dominating the Japanese market. Since the 1960s, the energy drink market has grown into a multibillion dollar business which has been reported as being the fastest growing segment in the beverage industry. Energy drinks have established a viable position in the beverage market as evidenced by their commonplace consumption in the morning, afternoon, and night, not only by the general consumer, but those of age 18 to 34 in particular (Lal, 2007).
The popularity of energy drinks and the growth in their consumption among adolescents and young adults have brought worries regarding general health and well being of these consumers. Adolescents and young adults are often uninformed about the content of energy drink (Rath, 2012).
1.2 Contents of Energy Drinks
There are hundreds of energy drinks available in the market, many share very similar ingredient profiles. Most of these energy drinks consist mainly of caffeine, Taurine, Guarana, Ginseng, B vitamins, Ginko Biloba, L-carntine, sugars, Antioxidants, Glucuronolactone, Yerba Mate, Creatine, Acai Berry, Milk Thistle, L-theanine, Inositol and artificial sweetners (Babu et al., 2008).
1.2.1 Caffeine
Caffeine is probably the most frequently ingested pharmacologically active substance in the world. It is one of the main ingredients of stimulant drinks and it is also present in tea, coffee and other beverages and foods. Caffeine is extracted from the raw fruit of over sixty species of coffee plants (coffea Arabica), all part of the methylxanthine family. The dimethylxanthine derivatives, theophylline and theobromine, are also found in a variety of plants. It is also extracted from tea, kola nuts, and cocoa. The average total intake of caffeine in the Republic of Ireland and the UK is estimated to be 214 and 278 mg per person per day, respectively (FSPB, 2010). Data from the consumption survey, based on weekly intake, indicates that among stimulant drink consumers, the average daily caffeine intake from stimulant drinks alone would be approximately 35 mg, rising to about 90 mg among the highest consumers (FSPB, 2010). This does not appear excessive. However, when the consumption of stimulant drinks in a single session was investigated, the average caffeine consumed was approximately 240 mg (3 cans), rising to about 640 mg (8 cans) among the highest consumers (FSPB, 2010). Such large intake levels among the highest consumers are a cause of concern, particularly in relation to the known potential acute health effects of caffeine such as tachycardia, increases in blood pressure and dehydration, as well as behavioural and cognitive effects. The health effects of chronic or habitual caffeine consumption remain uncertain. | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The world energy sector depends on the petroleum, coal and natural gas reservoirs to fulfill its energy requirements (Meher et al., 2006). Nigeria is traditionally an energy-deficient country which exports above 70% of its crude oil production. The country is dependent upon import of petroleum products to sustain its growth. Diesel fuel plays an essential function in the industrial economy of Nigeria. The fuel is used in heavy trucks, city transport buses, electric generators, farm equipment etc. (Anjana, 2000). However, diesel engine also emits various forms of pollutants into the environment which can endanger human health and damage the ecological environment (Antolin et a.l, 2002). It is therefore essential that the world extend its interest towards new sources of energy. A relatively new alternative that is currently booming worldwide is fuel obtained from renewable resources or biofuel. Biofuels are well suited for decentralized development i.e can be utilised to meet the needs for social and economic progress, especially in rural communities where fossil fuels may be difficult or expensive to obtain (Nwafor and Nwafor, 2000; Ezeanyananso et al., 2010).
Amongst the various alternative fuels which could match the combustion features of diesel oil and can be easily adapted for use in existing engine technologies with or without any major modifications is biodiesel. Biodiesel fuel produced from vegetable oils (both edible and non edible) or animal fats is one of the promising possible sources that can be substituted for conventional diesel fuel and produces favourable effects on the environment. Biodiesel is recommended for use as a substitute for petroleum diesel
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mainly because it is a renewable, domestic resource with an environmentally friendly emission profile and is readily available and biodegradable (Zhang et al., 2003).
The research and use of biodiesel fuel as an alternative started in the 1980?s and the reason was the diesel crisis caused by the reduction of petroleum production by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the resultant price hike. The biodiesel produced from locally available resources offer a great promise for future application in Nigeria as it can help in attaining much needed energy security and being environment friendly, will help to conform to stricter emission norms (Ezeanyananso, 2010).
Castor plant (Ricininus communis)
Ricinus communis (Plate I) is a species that belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family and it is commonly known as castor oil plant, and Palma christi. Castor oil is possibly the plant oil industry?s most underappreciated asset. It is one of the most versatile of plant oils, being used in over ten diverse industries.
Owing to its unique chemical composition and structure, castor oil can be used as the starting material for producing a wide range of end-products such as biodiesel, lubricants and greases, coatings, personal care and detergent, surfactants, oleo chemicals e.t.c. Compared to many other crops, castor crop requires relatively fewer inputs such as water, fertilizers and pesticides. The crop can also be grown on marginal land, thus providing an excellent opportunity for many regions of the world to utilize their land resources more productively (Dokwadanyi, 2011). The plant prefers well-drained moisture relative clay or sandy loan in full sun requires a rich soil and day time temperature above 20oC for | Abstract This study shows the synthesis of iron nanoparticles using costus after flower extract as a reducing agent. The reduction process of Fe3+ to Fe was observed by a change of color from red to dark reddish-brown color. The reaction was followed by the characterization of iron nanoparticles using UV-visible spectra of an aqueous solution containing iron nanoparticles that showed a peak at 516nm. These were carried out in a laboratory using standard chemical procedures to carry out this research and make sure standard rules and procedures were followed. The reactions were observed and we're recorded giving room to more and more future research to be carried out on ion nanoparticles. |
