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Effective use of a tropical hop named bitter leaf [Vernonia Amygdalina] extract as a means of extending the shelf Life of locally brewed millet beer
ABSTRACT
This research is on Effective use of a tropical hop named bitter leaf [Vernonia Amygdalina] extract as a means of extending the shelf Life of locally brewed millet beer. This local beer is brewed from a cereal grain called millet, and it is brewed with bitter leave extract acting as hop substitute to see if it can increase the shelf – life of this beer. The production process include malting, mashing, fermentation, and maturation. The microorganisms associated with fermentation include Saccharomyces Cerevisiae and Saccharomyces Charelienia. These yeast hasten fermentation by converting the sugar in the beer to alcohol. Kunu is an indigenous alcoholic beverages that is traditionally brewed with out hops, and because of this it has a shot shelf life as compared with that brewed with the tropical hops. There is a significant [P≥ 0.05] difference in chemical properties of millet with hops and without hops. Millet with hops is the best with alcoholic content of 0.325 ± 0.004, total acidity of 0.645 ± 0.011(% lactic acid),fixed acidity of 0.041± 0.002, specific gravity of 1.199±0.015 and pH of 4.03± 0.02.But without hops we have an alcoholic content of 0.316± 0.005, total acidity(lactic acid) of 0.427± 0.002, fixed acidity of 0.034± 0.005,specific gravity of 1.049± 0.007, and pH of 3.32±0.02.From the result the beer without hops is the lowest in acceptance of chemical properties so it is advisable that the local millet beer be brewed with the tropical hops (Vernonia Amygdalina).
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ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS ON PTEROCARPUS MILDBREADII (OHA)SEED
ABSTRACT
Elemental analysis is the qualitative detection and quantitative determination of chemical elementsatoms,ionsin a sampleFritz Pregl 1923. To detect an element, one should fix an appearance of an analytical signal. The formation of precipitate or characteristic crystals, colour change, an isolation of gaseous products, an appearance of a definite lines in spectrum, luminescence, etc.
To determine elements quantity, it is necessary to measure a value of an analytical signal; a precipitate mass, intensity of a current, solution absorption, spectrum line, luminescence or radioactivity, a reaction rate and so on.www.intechopen.com.
This study was undertaken to analse the elements present in grounded Pterocarpus mildbreadii Oha seed using Atomic Absorption SpectrometerAAS MODELAA320N.The seed was found to contain these essential macro minerals/elements sodiumNa,PotassiumK,calciumCa,magnesiumMg,and the trace elements ironFe,copperCu,zincZn, and seleniumSeDuffus,2002.
The study established that Pterocarpus mildbreadiioha seed does not contain manganese and has high content of potassium which is necessary for good health.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
A seed or mature ovule is a miniature plant with a protective cover in a suspended state of development. Most seeds contain a builtin food supply called endosperm, orchid is an exception. The endosperm can be made up of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
Seed can also be defined as a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plantWikipedia.Seed protects a plant embryo so that it can grow into a new plant. Many seeds are edible, such as sunflower seeds, tomato seeds, corn and peas.
Seeds contain three distinct structures. The inside of a seed contains an embryo, which is a baby plant with a shoot and a tiny root. The two halves of a seed are stored food that provides the nourishment necessary for seeds to germinate, or begin growing. Surrounding the seed is a hard, tough seed coat, which protects the seed during dormancyAnville 2007.
Most seeds contain a builtin food supply called endosperm. The endosperm can be made up of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Seeds also contain antinutrients in their seed coat. These antinutrients includes phytin, lectin, trypsin inhibitor activity, tannin and cyanide. In addition, they also contain minerals such as sodium, potassium,calcium,magnesium,phosphorus,zinc,manganese,iron,selenium and copper.Balogun 2000
Oilseeds are energy dense foods; for example, sesame seeds provide 600kcal or 2470kj/1000g.Although oilseeds contain protein1432g/100gand carbohydrateranging from less than 1g/100g to more than 34g/100g,most of the food energy they provide is as fatwhich provides 9kcal or 37kj/g.Oilseeds vary widely in their fatty acid composition but tend to be rich in MUFAe.g peanutr PUFAe.g sunflower seeds.Some seed oils contain significant amounts of EFA, ALNA, an n3 fatty acid, and linoleic acidLA,an n6 fatty acid. from these two fatty acids, the body can make all the fatty acids it needs. From LA, arachidonic acid can be produced, and from ALNA the long chain n3 eicosapentaenoic acidEPAand docosahexanoic acidDHAcan be made.BNF 1999.
Generally, whole oilseeds are a source of fibre, phosphorus, iron and magnesium; many oilseeds are a source of vitamin Ean antioxidant,niacin and folate. Whole oilseeds also contain phytoestrogens, a group of substances including lignans and isoflavones. Phytoestrogens have a structure similar to the oestrogen hormone oestradiol and can bind to oestrogen receptors.Phytoestrogens may provide a protective effect against coronary heart disease as they have been shown to have a lowering effect on blood cholesterol.Additionally,some phytoestrogens may have antioxidant propertiesGoldberg 2003.
In Britain, oilseeds are usually consumed, following processing,as oils and margarines. The fatty acid composition of oils produced from oilseeds varies widely. Vegetable oils do not contain the same levels of macronutrients, vitamins and minerals as whole oilseeds. In fact, apart from fat itself, vitamin E is the only nutrient present in appreciable amounts. Vegetable oils do, however, contain a range of phytochemicals, e.g they are the main source of natural plant sterols in the diet. Plant sterols have a structure similar to cholesterol and hence reduce cholesterol absorption, therefore reducing the circulating levels of total and low density lipoproteinLDLcholesterol. Plant sterols can be present as free or esterified forms and the proportions vary, e.g free sterols dominate in soybean,olive and sunflower oil,while in rapeseed and corn oil, free sterols account for only 30 of the plant sterols.Refining vegetable oils decreases the content of sterolsfrom 1070 depending on the oil and processing conditions used,thus decreasing their potential to lower serum cholesterolGoldberg 2003.
1.2 AIM OF STUDY
To determine the elements present in grinded oha seedPterocarpus mildbreadii
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE;
This study was primarily designed to use grinded oha seedPterocarpus mildbreadii extract for elemental analysis.
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PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION ON EFFECTS OF BURANTASHI EXTRACT ON LIPOPROTEINS OF ALBINO MALE AND FEMALE WHISTAR RATS
ABSTRACT
This work was carried out to investigate the effects of Burrantashi extracts on the lipoproteins Burantashi is a popular seasoning agent to barbecued meat Suya in Nigeria. Found in the northern parts of the country. Lipoproteins are the principal steroid or fat that is synthesized in the liver or intestines of animals. Erectile dysfunction ED is defined as the consistent or recurrent inability of a man to attain or maintain penile erection, sufficient for sexual activity 2nd international consultation on sexual dysfunction Paris, June 28th July 1st 2003. Following the discovery and introduction of burantashi research on the mechanism underlying penile erection, had an enormous boost and many preclinical and clinical papers have been published in the last five years on the peripheral regulation of, and the mediators involved in human penile erection. The most widely accepted risk factors for e.g. are discussed. The research is focused on human data and the safety and effectiveness of burantashi stem as a phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors PDEs used to treat erectile dysfunction.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Erectile dysfunction, ED, is a sexual dysfunction that affects the reproductive systems of both men and women. By definition according to National Institute of Health consensus Development Panel on impotence 1993, in Males, it is a sexual dysfunction characterized with the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. It is also known as Male impotence or Baby D syndrome, while in women, according to American Psychiatric Association 1994, it is characterized with the persistent or recurrent inability to attain, or maintain until completion of the sexual activity, an adequate Lubrication Swelling response that otherwise is present during female sexual arousal and sexual activity is thus prevented. Hence, it is called Women impotence or female erectile dysfunction.
The word impotence may also be used to describe other problems that may interfere with sexual intercourse and reproduction, such as lack of Sexual Desire and problems with ejaculation or orgasm. Using the term erectile dysfunction, however makes it clear that those other problems are not involved NIH, 2005.
An erection occurs as a hydraulic effect due to blood entering and being retained in spongelike bodies within the penis and clitoris. The process is most often than not initiated as a result of sexual arousal, when signals are transmitted from the brain to nerves in the pelvis.
Erectile dysfunction is, therefore indicated when an erection is consistently difficult or impossible to produce, despite arousal Laumann et al., 1999.
1.1 PREVALENCE OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION IN WOMEN
Erectile dysfunction which is known as Female erection dysfunction in women occurs in about 43 of American Women NIH Consensus Conference, 1993. And this medical Condition is a persistent or recurrent inability to attain or maintain clitoral erection until completion of the sexual activity, an adequate Lubrication Swelling response that is normally present during Female sexual arousal and sexual activity is therefore, absent. The individual having the condition is said to experience frigidity American Psychiatric Association, 1994. Again,
According to Otubu et al. 1998 about 8.7 of Women suffer from this very condition in the United States while between 35.3 40, according to Adequnloye 2002 and Eze 1994 of Women in Nigeria suffer from this condition. Spector and Carey 1994 reported 510 in the United States.
In addition, Female erectile dysfunction occurs at any age but majorly in old age. Hence, the most significant age related change is menopause Karen, 2000 and Rod et al., 2005. However, erectile dysfunction may be caused by diabetes, atherosclerosis, hormonal imbalances, neurological problems etc. Organic causes or stress, depression etc.
Because treating the underlying causes Organic or Psychological, the first line treatment of ED consists of a trial of PDES inhibitor the first of which was Sildenafil or Viagra. In some cases, treatment can involve prostagLandin tablets in the Urethra, intravenous injection with a fine needle into the penis or clitoris that causes swelling of Penis or Clitoris Pump or Vascular surgery, estrogen replacement therapy for the women etc.
Although there are various methods and techniques that are used to treat this very condition, however, for the purpose of this project, the treatment is restricted to Yohimbe, an extract from Pausinystalia yohimbe.
1.2 PREVALENCE OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION IN MEN
Erectile dysfunction, ED, varies in severity; some men have a total inability to achieve an erection, others have inconsistent ability to achieve an erection, and still others can sustain only brief erection. The variation in severity of erectile dysfunction makes estimating its frequency difficult.
Many men also are reluctant to discuss erectile dysfunction with their doctors, and thus, the condition is underdiagnosed. Nevertheless, experts have estimated that ED affects 30 million men in the United States. Again, according to the statistical research carried out by Adegunloye 2002 and Eze 1994 respectively in Nigeria, results shows that about 2326.4 of men suffer from this condition while according to Spector and Carey 1999 discovered that about 49 of men suffer from the condition in the United States.
While erectile dysfunction can occur at any age, it is uncommon among young men and more common in the elderly. By the age of 45, most men have experienced erectile dysfunction at least some of the time. According to the Massachusetts Male Aging Study, complete impotence increases from 5 among Men 40 years of age to 15 among Men 70 years and older. Population studies conducted in the Netherlands found out that some degree of ED occurred in 20 of Men between 50 54 and in 50 of men between ages 70 78. In 1998, the National Ambulatory Medical care Survey counted 1,520,000 Doctor Offices visited for ED.
1.3 OBJECTIVE STUDY AND AIMS
This project focuses to give a clear picture of the effect on erectile tissues of the Penis, Clitoris of both Men and Women.
1.4 NITRIC OXIDECYCLIC GMP PATHWAY WITH SOME EMPHASIS ON CAVERNOSAL CONTRACTILITY
Nitric Oxide NO is formed from the conversion of L arginine by nitric oxide synthase NOS, endothelial eNOS, and inducible iNOS. nNOS is expressed in penile neurons innervating the corpus Cavernosum, and eNOS protein expression has been identified primarily in both Cavernosal Smooth Muscle and endothelium. NO is released from nerve endings and endothelial cells and stimulates the activity of soluble guanylate cyclase sGC, leading to an increase in cyclic guanosine 3,5, Monophosphate cGMP and, finally, to Calcuim depletion from the cytosolic space and Cavernous Smooth muscle relaxation. The effect of cGMP are mediated by cGMP dependent Protein Kinase, cGMPgated ion channels, and cGMPregulated Phosphodiesterases PDE. Thus, cGMP effect depends on the expression of a CellSpecific cGMPreceptor protein in a given cell type. Numerous systemic vasculature diseases that cause erectile dysfunction ED are highly associated with endothelial dysfunction, which has been shown to contribute to decrease erectile function in men and a number of animal models of penile erection. Based on the increasing knowledge of intracellular signal propagation in cavernous smooth muscle tone regulation, selective PDE inhibitors have recently been introduced in the treatment of ED. Phosphodiesterase5 PDE5 inactivates cGMP, which terminates NOcGMPmediated SMooth Muscle relaxation. Inhibition of PDE5 is expected to enhance penile erection by preventing cGMP degradation. Development of pharmacologic agents with this effect has closely paralleled the emerging science.
International Journal of impotence Research 2004. Nitric oxide NO was first described by Stuehr and Marletta 1985 as a product of activated murine machrophages. Also, the substance known as endothelium derived relaxing factor EDRF, described by Furchgott and Zawadzki 1980, has been identified as NO.
Soluble guanylate cyclase sGC, responsible for the enzymatic conversion of guanosine 5 triphosphate GTP to cyclic guanosine 35 monophosphate cGMP, was first identified as a constituent of mammalian cells almost three decades ago. No and cGMP together comprise an especially wideranging signals transduction system when one considers the many roles of cGMP in physiological regulation, including smooth muscle relaxation, visual transduction, intestinal ion transport, and platelet function.
Erectile dysfunction ED is defined as the constituent inability to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance and is considered to be a natural process of ageing. Studies have shown that ED is caused by inadequate relaxing of the corpus cavernosum with defeat in NO production.
It is clear that NO is the predominant neurotransmitter responsible for cavernasal Smooth muscle relaxation and hence penile erection. Its action is medicated through the generation of the second messenger cGMP. Neutrally, derived NO has been established as a mediator of smooth muscle relaxation in the penis and it is thought that constitutive forms of nitric oxide synthase NOS work to mediate the convesion of GTP to the intracellular second messenger cGMP in smooth muscle cells. An increase in cGMP modulates cellular events, such as relaxation of smooth muscle cells.
This review will describe current knowledge of cellular events involved in cavernosal relaxation and the range of putative factors involved in NOmediated relaxation.
1.5 SYNTHESIS OF Nitric Oxide NO.
Recent observation suggest that the main site of NO biosythesis in human corpus cavernosum is within the terminal branches of cavernosal
nerves supplying the erectile tissue. It is strongly suggested that NO released from nonadrenergic noncholinergic NANC neurons increases the production of cGMP, which in turn relaxes the cavernous smooth muscle. Endothelial derived NO plays a major role in the penis. Some suggest that NO is highly labile, therefore it cannot be stored as a preformed neurotransmitter. Other proerectile mediators, such as acetylcholine, calcitonin gene related peptide CGRP or substance P, act via endothelialcells by prompting the synthesis and release of NO by these cells, Bivalacqua et al., 2001. Found in their study that in vivo adenoviral gene transfer of CGRP in combination with adrenomedullin ADM or prostaglandin E1PGEI induce penile erection by activating different receptors.
The combination of molecular oxygen and the amino acid arginine in the presence of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NADPH and NO synthase, NOS yields citruline nitrogen of L arginine. L citrulline can be converted by arginine synthase AS to form Larginine, the precursor for NO. Each of these enzymes, cofactors, or transport systems could be an eventual target of pharmacologic intervention in the NO cascade.
Oral administration of Larginine in high doses seems to cause significant subjective improvement in sexual function in men with Organic ED only if they have decreased production of plasma and urine nitrite and nitrates, which are stable metabolites of NO. There are at least three isoform of NOS neuronal, endothelial, and macrophage. A constitutive form of NOS is found in endothelial and neurons, and is calcium dependent. The constitutive NOS3, whereas the constitute NOS found in neutral and epithelial tissue has been named NOS1. An inducible form of NOS, now designated iNOS, is calcium independent. It is induced within 424h of the appropriate stimulus and can produce NO in a 100fold greater amount than can constitutive NOS.
Neutral NOS has multiple regulator sites, including binding sites for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NADPH, Flavin adenine dinucleotide FAD, and flavin Monoucleotide FMN. All of these are O factors for the synthesis of NO. these cofactors bind to a reductase domain to process election transfer. This is then linked to heme and tetrahydrobiopterin BH4 containing catalytic oxygenenase domain by calciumcalmodulin complex figure 2.
The complete enzyme converts Larginine to L citrulline and NO in the presence of molecular Oxygen. In addition to the various protein modules or domains of neuronal NOS, which are involved in electron transfer, substrate binding, oxygen activation and calcium binding, a four amino acid motif glycine Leucineglycine Phenylalanine, GLGF has been identified in amino terminal region of NOS1. Although the function of this aminoacid motif in NOS2 has not been established, a study on other proteins containing this motif indicates that it may serve to target proteins to specific sites in the cell. nNOS has a recognition site for calmodulin that is also present in eNOS and macrophages NOS. The constitutive isoforms are generally regulated by Ca2 calmodulin, whereas inducible forms are not.
nNOS in the penis is expressed primarily as a variant of the brain form of nNOS and has been termed PnNOS. It has an additional 102bp alternative exon located between exons 16 and 17. The function of this additional coding region is unknown. PnNOS is thought to be responsible for trigging the nitregic mechanism responsible for cavernosal relaxation. A similar variant, nNOSU is present in the neuromuscular plates of skeletal muscles, including the perineal muscles involved in erectile rigidity and ejaculation in rats. The control of NO synthesis in the Cavernosal nerve, whether due to sexual stimulation emanating.
Centrally, from the brain, or peripherally by means of the dorsal nerve spinal reflex is assumed to be exerted through the activation of PnNOS activity. This mechanism occurs mainly by Ca2 binding to calmodulin by means of Ca2 flux through the NmethylDaspartate receptor NMDAR. Both the NMDAR and inhibitors of nNOS activity, such as protein inhibitors of nNOS activity, such as protein inhibitors of NOSPIN and carboxy terminal POZ Ligand of nNOS CAPON, also bind to nNOS .
The nitrognic activation of penile erection is not restricted to peripheral nerves of the corpora cavernosa but is also dependent on central nervous system CNS regulated.
1.6 INACTIVATION
NO is inactivated by heme and the free radical, superoxide .thus scavengers of superoxide anion such as superoxide dismutase SOD may protect NO, enhancing its potency and prolong its duration of action. Conversely, interaction of NO with super oxide may generate the potent tissue damaging moiety, peroxynitrite ON001, which has a high affinity for sulfhydryl groups and thus inactives several key sulphydrylbearing enzymes. This effect of perotynitrite is regulated by the cellular content of glutathione.
Khan et al., 2001 found that NO and electrical field stimulated EFS mediated cavernosal smooth muscle relaxation is impaired in a rabbit of diabetes but SOD significantly reversed the impaired relaxation. Manipulation of physiological NO concentration is unlikely to give physiological benefits in ED, since higher levels will predispose to toxic effects NO availability may be increased by the use of the enzyme superoxide dismutase SOD, which causes decreased levels of superoxide anion.
1.7 The NO receptor: Soluble guanylate cyclase
Soluble GC is a heme containing protein found in the cytosolic fraction of virualy all mammalian cells. With the highest concentrations found in the lungs and brain. Several isoforms of sGC have been Cloned and characterized. Originally sGC was purified to apparent homogeiniety from bovine and rat lung and shown to exist as a heterodimer, consisting of 82
Koa rat or 73Koa bovine and 70Koasubunits, termed x, and 1respectively. Further subunits termed x1 and 2 have also been identified from the human foetal brain 82Koa and rat kidney 76Koa, respectively, GUCIA2; the gene coding for the x2Subunit,has been localized to position q21q22 on the human chromosome 11.
Soluble GC is a heterodimer with at least three functional domains for each subunit figure 3. These domains are a heme binding domain, dimerization domain, and catalytic domain. The N terminal portion of each subunit constitutes a hemebinding domainand represents the least conserved region of the protein; it is the heme moiety that confers the NOsensitivity of the enzyme. Heme reconstituted more NO sensitive than an equivalent protein containing 1 mole heme per dimmer.
1.8 Intracellular cyclic GMP receptor proteins
Cyclic GMP interacts with three types of intracellular receptor proteins: cGMPdependent protein kinases PKGs, cGMPregulated ion channels and cGMPregulated cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases PDEs.
This means that cGMP alter cell function through mechanism not directly related to protein phosphorylation.
Two general classes of cGMP kinases exist in vertebrate cells: a type 1 and a type 11 form. The type 1 cGMP kinase is more abundant and widely distributed and has been isolated from vascular and other tissues while the ype 11 form has been detected in vertebrate intestinal epithelial cells.
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PHYTOCHEMICAL AND ANTI-INFLAMMATORY PROPERTIES OF METHANOL EXTRACT OF CRATEVA ADANSONII STEM BARK.
ABSTRACT
This research investigated the phytochemical and antiinflammatory properties of methanol extract of Crateva adansonii stem bark. Although several edible and nonedible plants parts are used in inflammatory treatment, many record has been found of the use of Crateva adansonii stem bark. For this research, fresh stem bark of Crateva adansonii were collected from Asata village in Enugu State. The cuttings were authenticated at the Bioresource development centre. They were then dried at room temperature for one month in an open lab space, grounded into powder and weighed on a beam balance as 460.6g. The powder was soaked for twentyfour to fourtyeight hours in methanol to get a methanol extract and then concentrated into paste at a set temperature range of 30550C in a water bath. A population of twenty adult wistar Albino rats was used for antiinflammatory test. The rats were divided into five 5 groups of four 4 albino rats each. They were administered 3 tween80 mixed with dichloromethane extract of Crateva adansonii and the control was administered with 0.5ml of 3 tween80. Acute inflammation was induced an hour after test substances were administered by injecting egg albumin in the subplanter region of the right hind paw and edema assessed by mercury displacement for a period of 0180 minutes. Antiinflammatory effect was significant within 30 minutes of induced edema with inhibition occurring in three phases of 030, 3060, 6090. 90120 to 180 minutes. Inhibition was highest at the third phase. Crateva adansonii barks showed antiinflammatory effect by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis an inflammatory mediator
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Inflation is a Latin word inflammare which is translated means to set on fire. It is a complex biological response of vascular tissue to harmful stimuli such as pathogens, damaged cells irritant. Inflammation is the reaction of vascularized tissue to local injury caused by certain stimuli like infections, chemicals and biochemical agents, thermal or other physical trauma, antigenantibody interaction etc Carol, 1994. Without inflammatory response, wounds will not heal and minor infections would be over weening. Though inflammation aims at limiting damage and restoring function, some enzymes and toxic products within phagocytic cells are released to the extend of damaging the tissue. The advent of antiinflammatory agents has made inflammation which as been a threat to human life due to its complex, multicontent, to loose its power. These antiinflammatory agents or drugs help reduce, pain by inhibiting inflammation as opposed to opioids, which affects the central nervous system. It also prevent repairs, prevent and stop the consequences of inflammation by acting on the body responses without directly antagonizing the causative agent Stedman, 2000. These antiinflammatory process involves the process of balancing proinflammatory acutephase reactants Russell et al. 2000, altering biochemical pathway forming prostaglandins by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzyme from catalyzing the reaction, as a result, suppress, compensate and correct the mechanical and structural abnormalities by assistive device. Masumoto et al.2009.
The inflammatory reaction is phylogenetically and ontogenetically the oldest defense mechanism. The cells of immune system are widely distributed throughout the body, but if an infection or tissue damage occurs. It is necessary to concentrate them and their products at the site of damage.
Three major events occurring during this response:
1. An increased blood supply to the damaged tissue . It is performed by vasodilation. The inflamed tissue look like containing greater number of vessels.
2. Increased capillary permeability caused by retraction of the endothelial cells. This permits larger molecules than usual to escape from the capillaries, and thus allows the soluble mediators of immunity to reach the site of inflammation.
3. Leukocytes migrates out of the capillaries into the surrounding tissues. In the earliest stages of inflammation, neutrophils are particularly prevalent, but later monocytes and lymphocytes migrate towards the site of infection Ashcroft et al.1999.
For the possibility of surrounding tissue damage, inflammatory responses must be well ordered and controlled. The body must be able to act quickly in some situations, for example to reduce or stop the lost of blood, whereas tissue repair can begin later. Therefore a wide variety of interconnected cellular and humoral soluble mechanisms are activated when tissue damage and infections occur. On the other hand, if injury is negligible, the body must have mechanisms which are able to stop tissue damage when the agent is removed. The development of inflammatory reactions is controlled by cytokines, products of plasma enzymes complement, the coagulation clotting, kinin and fibrolytic pathways, by lipid mediators prostaglandin and leukotrienes released from different cells/ and by vasoactive mediators from the mast cells, basophils and platelets. These antiinflammatory reactions differ. Fastacting mediators such as vasoactive amines and the product of the kininsystem, modulate the immediate response. Later, newly synthesized mediators such as leukotrienes are involved in the accumulation and activation of other cells. However, in inflammatory reactions initiated by the immune system, the ultimate control is exerted by the antigen itself in the same ways it controls the immune response itself. For this reason, the cellular accumulation at the site of chronic infection or autoimmune reactions where antigen cannot ultimately be eradicated, is quiet different from the sites were antigenic stimulus can be rapidly cleared.
The nervous system can also participate in the control of inflammation especially axon reflexes, but inflammation may be realized in nonnervous tissues as well.
Inflammation may become chronic in certain settings where the acute process characterized by neutrophil infiltration and swelling gives way to predominance of mononuclear phagocytes and lymphocytes.This probably occurs to some degree with the normal healing process but becomes exaggerated and chronic when theres ineffective elimination of foreign materials as in certain infections e.g tuberculosis or following introduction of foreign bodies example asbestos or deposition of crystals example urate crystals. Chronic inflammation is often associated with fussion of mononuclear cells to form multinucleated gigantic cells, which eventually become granuloma. Chronic inflammation is seen under of delayed hypersensitivity Nathan, 2002.
1.2 CRATEVA ADANSONII AS A PLANT.
The flowering tree crateva religiosa syn crateva adansonii is called the sacred garlic pear and temple plant, and many other names in a variety of dialets, including Balai, lamok, abiyuch, barna, varuna and bidasi. The tree is sometimes called the spider tree because the showy flower bear long, spidery stamens. It is native to Japan, Australia, much of South East Asia and several South east Asia and several South pacific islands. It is grown elsewhere for fruit especially in part of African continent.
The crateva adansonii plant is a moderate sized, spreading unarmed, deciduous tree growing to a height of 15 meters. Bark is grey, the wood yellowishwhite turning light brown when old. Leaves are clustered at the end of the branchlets with a common petiole 510 centimeter long, at the summit of which are three leaflets. Leaflets are ovatelanceolate or ovate 7.512 centimeter long, 46 centimeter wide. Pointed at the base rather slender pointer at the tip. Flower occur in terminal corymbs, about 5 centimeters in diameter, greenish yellow, and at length purplish.
Petals are ovate or oblong with the claw haft as long as the limb. Fruit is ovoid or rounded, 35 centimeter in diameters, with a hard and rough rind.
Seeds are about 10 centimeter in length, numerous kidneyshaped, and embedded in a yellow pulp.
1.3 DISTRIBUTION
1. In waste places, along streams and in thickets near the sea.
2. Occurs in India, Myanmar, Sri lanka, Malasia, Indonesia and
China. nature serve. 2011.
3. Sometimes planted as ornamentals tree for its beautiful flower.
1.4 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Angiosperrrrms
Class: Eudicots
Sub class: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Capparaceae
Genues: Crateva
Species: C.reliigiosa
The constituents of the plant have been assessed overtime and it has been found in various parts of the plants to contain:
Bark yield tannin.
Phytochiemicals screening of extract of dried leaves yielded allcaloids, carbohydrates, tannin, flavonoids, resins, proteins, oils, steroids and terpenoids.
1.5 PROPERTIES
Generally considered diuretic, antiinflammatory, laxative, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antilithics, antirheumatic, antiperiodic, contraceptive, anthelmintic.
Bark has a disagreeable smell, the taste slightly bitter, bitting and pungent. Leaves considered stomachic and tonic.
Roots and bark considered laxative, lithotriptic and alternative, promoting appetite and increasing biliary sections.
Leaves are rubifacient, tonic and febrifugal.
1.6 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES
This research aim at investigating the antiinflammatory properties of methanol extract of crateva adasonii stem bark. And as objectives, to compare the therapeutic potential, i.e. antiinflammatory effect of the methanol extract of crateva adansonii bark against the experimental standard indomethacin.
1.7 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The plant crateva adansonii also known as or also called sacred garlic pear and temple plant. Apart from its medicinal properties which allows the plants to be used as laxative, it is also an edible plant especially the fruits, berry and young shoot. The plant is used in herbal treatment of tympanites, convulsion, treatment of fever, rheumatism, urinary calculi etc.
Crateva adansonii is capable of suppressing the free radicals, production, it is been suggested to have antiinflammatory properties which counter the synthesis of inflammatory mediators thus forming the background of this research.
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2022 FREE biochemistry project topics pdf & doc in Nigeria: Diploma, ND, HND, degree for undergraduates download | simple Diploma, ND, HND, degree, MSC, PG, PHD, MLT biochemistry department project topics ideas for high school, universities, polytechnics & college of education students | undergraduate biochemistry students research final year project topics | plant, medical, food, clinical biochemistry project topics | best biochemisty project work research ideas examples with abstract, Chapters 1-5 & references
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Effective use of a tropical hop named bitter leaf [Vernonia Amygdalina] extract as a means of extending the shelf Life of locally brewed millet beer
ABSTRACT
This research is on Effective use of a tropical hop named bitter leaf [Vernonia Amygdalina] extract as a means of extending the shelf Life of locally brewed millet beer. This local beer is brewed from a cereal grain called millet, and it is brewed with bitter leave extract acting as hop substitute to see if it can increase the shelf – life of this beer. The production process include malting, mashing, fermentation, and maturation. The microorganisms associated with fermentation include Saccharomyces Cerevisiae and Saccharomyces Charelienia. These yeast hasten fermentation by converting the sugar in the beer to alcohol. Kunu is an indigenous alcoholic beverages that is traditionally brewed with out hops, and because of this it has a shot shelf life as compared with that brewed with the tropical hops. There is a significant [P≥ 0.05] difference in chemical properties of millet with hops and without hops. Millet with hops is the best with alcoholic content of 0.325 ± 0.004, total acidity of 0.645 ± 0.011(% lactic acid),fixed acidity of 0.041± 0.002, specific gravity of 1.199±0.015 and pH of 4.03± 0.02.But without hops we have an alcoholic content of 0.316± 0.005, total acidity(lactic acid) of 0.427± 0.002, fixed acidity of 0.034± 0.005,specific gravity of 1.049± 0.007, and pH of 3.32±0.02.From the result the beer without hops is the lowest in acceptance of chemical properties so it is advisable that the local millet beer be brewed with the tropical hops (Vernonia Amygdalina).
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INCIDENCE OF CANDIDA ALBICANS AMONGST PREGNANT AND NON-PREGNANT WOMEN IN OWERRI METROPOLIS
ABSTRACT
This research is on Incidence of candida albicans amongst pregnant and non-pregnant women in Owerri metropolis. A study on the incidence of Candida albicans was carried out on pregnant and non-pregnant women at the Federal Medical Centre and general Hospital Owerri. High vaginal swabs were used for the study. A total of 120 women were examined for Candida albicans; of which a total of 80 were pregnant women and the remaining 40 were non-pregnant women (used as control). The microbiological standard of identification of the organism was adopted. Of the 80 pregnant women examined for Candida albicans, 68 were infected, which represents an incidence of 85.0%. Of the 40 non pregnant women (control) examined, 16 were infected, which represents an incidence rate of 40.0%. Greatest percentage of 58.8% and 56.2% were recorded in the age group of 18-28 respectively. The pregnant women had a higher incidence rate of 85.0%. The clinical symptoms noted amongst them were itching, irritation of the vulva and a white, cottage cheese-like vaginal discharge.
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FORMULATION AND SENSORY EVALUATION OF HERB TEA FROM MORINGA OLEIFERA, HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA AND CYMBOPOGON CITRATUS
ABSTRACT
This research is on Formulation and sensory evaluation of herb tea from moringa oleifera, hibiscus sabdariffa and cymbopogon citratus. The sensory appeal of tea, like all food products, is an important consideration in new product development. Tea in general and herb tea in particular, are gaining increasing consumer attention due to a growing awareness of health benefits derived from their consumption. Even though several underutilized plants exist with potential for processing into herb tea, research in product development of herb teas is limited. The objectives of the study were (1) to conduct chemical analyses on three herbs – Cymbopogon citratus leaves, Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces and Moringa oleifera leaves – in order to assess their potential for food product development; (2) to conduct acceptance tests on herb tea prepared from formulations of the herbs; and (3) to generate descriptive vocabulary on the sensory properties of herb tea. The herbs were unblanched and solar-dried. Standard methods were used to measure proximate parameters, water soluble extractives (WSE), light petroleum extractives (LPE), pH, total polyphenolics content (TPC) and minerals (Ca, Fe, Cu and Zn). Fifty (50) untrained panelists conducted acceptance tests on infusions from nine formulations and one control, and a nine-member trained panel conducted descriptive tests on infusions from three selected blends. Results of chemical analysis revealed that Moringa, Roselle and Lemon grass had, respectively, TPC of 35.70 mg/g, 27.81 mg/g and 15.37 mg/g; WSE of 7.44%, 12.38% and 4.07%; LPE of 3.48%, 2.71% and 4.1%; pH of 5.47, 2.73 and 4.53.
Mineral analyses revealed that Moringa, Roselle and Lemon grass had, respectively, Ca of 412.5 mg/100g, 294 mg/100g and Fe of 12.93 mg/100g; 24.26 mg/100g and 11.58 mg/100g. A total of seventeen (17) descriptors were generated, defined and referenced for herb tea comprising six (6) appearance, three (3) aroma, one (1) flavour, five (5) taste and two (2) mouthfeel descriptors. Herb tea brewed from product 532 (50% Moringa, 30% Roselle and 20% Lemon grass) was the most preferred in colour, flavour, astringency and overall sensory properties while the control (100% Moringa) brewed the least preferred herb tea in most of the sensory attributes. Product 532 was predominantly reddish in colour (12.56) while the control was yellowish (11.93). Product 532 had high mean scores for Turbidity (12.67), Herbal aroma (11.41), Citrus aroma (11.30), Sour taste (12.15) and Astringency (11.41) while the control had significantly low scores for most of these attributes (≤ 2.33). Herb tea from blend of Moringa, Roselle and Lemon grass was more appealing than herb tea from only Moringa.
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