Chemical engineering 2022-2023 FREE project topics report and materials pdf & doc in Nigeria download | ND, HND, MSC, B Eng, diploma final year projects | projectslib.com

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to generate a design data, design and fabricate a maize cornoncob tray dryer used by maize farmers. Ripped maize corns with husks were bought from the market and preserved to retained its moisture content, dehusked and thereafter, dried to a given percentage moisture content of 15. This was done by laboratory dryer. The drying rate data was generated and the high rate of 2.0g/hr was used afterwards to design and fabricate the cornoncob dryer. From the results, drying of a sample of maize cornoncob by the laboratory dryer took a period of three days and six hours to reach the 15 moisture content wet basis needed. A test run was carried out on the fabricated dryer and seventeen hours was used to dry a sample of maize cornoncob to the same 15 moisture content. This implies that design data is satisfactory as its application in the fabrication of the dryer resulted in an increased flow rate of air in the dryer thereby increasing the rate of drying at the same drying temperature of 40oC.

 

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Cereal grains have been and will continue to be a major source of food for humans and animals throughout the world. Amongst all cereals, the most important is the maize grain. Leonard et al, 1963. Maize corn and products can be used for various purposes; human food, alternative medicine, chemicals, bio fuels, ornamentals, fodder, to mention but a few Leonard, Warren H., and John H. Martin. Maize crop is intensively and extensively cultivated in all the geopolitical zones of Nigeria. Early maize is planted between late March and late May while the late maize is planted between August and September. The harvest time for the early maize is usually between late July and September. During this period, corns are harvested fresh and cannot be preserved by drying owing to the unavailability of sunshine during the rainy season. It is usually roasted or cooked fresh. This practice does not encourage maize farmers as they would sell the maize corn at a giveaway prices and this does not guarantee returns on their investment. In addition to this, dried maize grains will guarantee food sufficiency during the scarce period. Notably, corn of high moisture content does not stored very well and is usually vulnerable to damage due to deterioration, molds, and insects during the period of storage.

However, open airsun drying as practiced in most rural areas often yields poor quality dried corn, since the product is not protected against dust, moisture, wind, rodents as well as other domestic animals while carrying out the drying. As a result, they are often contaminated with pathogens. Another common practice in maize cornoncob drying is drying over a fire place. This has its own problems as the maize grains are contaminated with smoke. Moreover, the temperature of drying is not properly controlled such that grains become dead after drying. There are various research works that have been carried out on grain drying Zare et al, 2006; Mellmann, et al 2011; Adzimah and Seckley, 2009. These works were silent on drying and dryer design for maize cornoncobs.

 

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Maize corns are usually stored when dried to certain percentage moisture content. In Nigeria, maize corn drying is done in dry season because of low humidity of atmospheric air and adequate sunshine. However, it is a common place to see peasant maize farmers dry their maize cornoncobs over fire place, but this practice contaminates the dried maize corn with smoke and usually small quantity of maize cornoncob are dried. The reverse is the case during the rainy season. Unfortunately, bulk of the maize corn is harvested in the rainy season and farmers can not dry the fresh maize corn rather they sell them at very cheap prices to corn roasters and for other delicacies. To give value to farmers and also to guarantee maize corn sufficiency during scarce period, it becomes necessary that a simple but robust cornoncob dryer should be designed and fabricated to assist farmers have good returns on their investment especially during postharvest handling of maize corn during rainy season.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The aims of this research include:

i. To develop a drying rate curve for maize cornoncob at constant drying condition.

ii. To generate design data for tray dryer to be used to dry maize cornon cob.

iii. To develop and draw working diagrams for the tray dryer.

iv. To fabricate a tray dryer.

v. To test run the tray dryer.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Some of the benefits derivable from this research project include:

i. It will encourage maize farmers by giving them good returns on their labour and enhance maize corn production.

ii. It will provide Nigerian populace with a cleaner dried maize grains.

iii. It will attract foreign exchange for Nigeria as cleaner dried maize can be export.

iv. It will ensure maize grain sufficiency during the scarce period.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

This research will be restricted to the following areas;

i. Generation of design data for cornoncobs.

ii. Designing the cornoncob dryer.

iii. Fabrication of the dryer.

iv. Test run.

ABSTRACT

Perfume extraction refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw materials, using methods such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression or enfleurage. The extracts are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. Heat, chemical solvents, or exposure to oxygen in the extraction process denature the aromatic compounds, either changing their odour, character or rendering them odourless. In this work three methods, solvent extraction, hydro distillation and enfleurage methods were used to extract essential oil from lemongrass. Solvent extraction method yielded 2.08, enfluerage method yielded 1.96 and hydro distillation methods yielded 0.95 essential oil respectively. From the analysis solvent extraction gave the highest yield because of the less exposure air and heat and this conform the literature value. The extracted essential oil was formulated into perfume using a fixative and carrier solvent.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Perfume is a fragrant liquid made from an extract that has been distilled in alcohol and water.

Since the beginning of recorded history, humans have attempted to mask or enhance their own odor by using perfume, which emulates natures pleasant smells. Many natural and manmade materials have been used to make perfume to apply to the skin and clothing, to put in cleaners and cosmetics, or to scent the air. Because of differences in body chemistry, temperature, and body odors, no perfume will smell exactly the same on any two people.

Perfume comes from the Latin per meaning through and fume, or smoke. Many ancient perfumes were made by extracting natural oils from plants through pressing and steaming. The oil was then burned to scent the air. Today, most perfume is used to scent bar soaps. Some products are even perfumed with industrial odorants to mask unpleasant smells or to appear unscented.

While fragrant liquids used for the body are often considered perfume, true perfumes are defined as extracts or essences and contain a percentage of oil distilled in alcohol.

Techniques involved in perfume extraction from plants include; solvent extraction, distillation and effleurage method. These methods to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds that are obtained from the raw materials.

Important thing in relation to perfume making is that there are three key ingredients you will need to produce perfume:

1. Essential Oils these have been extracted from various plants organic or nonorganic and when combined give the smell of the perfume you are trying to produce.

2. Pure Grain Oil

3. Water

1.2 LEMONGRASS

Family: Poaceae Gramineae, Cymbopogon species

The genus has about 55 species, most of which are native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia. Two major types have considerable relevance for commercial use: East Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon flexuosus is native to India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand, whereas West Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus is assumed to originate in Malaysia. The plants grow in dense clumps up to 2 meters in diameter and have leaves up to 1 meter long. Further Cymbopogon martini Roxb. J.F. Watson var. martini, which is native to India and cultivated in Java isworth mentioning as it also grows in Bhutan and is extracted for palmarosa oil. Another species with commercial relevance is citronella grass Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt which also stems from India, but is today grown throughout the tropics.

 

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

The problem of perfume extraction process is the distortion of the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to heat, harsh solvents and also through the exposure to oxygen which will denature the aromatic compounds. These will either change their odor, character or render them odorless.

The problem of formulation of perfume involves knowing the proportion in which essential oil, and other materials to be mixed to avoid skin irritation and increase the intensity and longevity of the perfume.

Most imported perfumes are synthetic odorant which are not pure chemical substance but are mixture of organic compounds that are harmful when applied.

There are limited perfume plants, from which perfume can be made; this can lead to importation of perfume thereby causing the decline of foreign reserves and unemployment.

 

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT

The main objective of this project is to extract and formulate perfume from Lemon grass CYMBOPOGON FLEXUOSUS.

1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This project focuses on the production of perfumes from natural/plant sources as against synthetic chemicals thereby will reduce any side effect resulting from synthetic chemicals.

The success of this work will stimulate the development of the perfume industry locally because of available, cheap raw materials.

More jobs will be created by those that will be engaged in planting/cultivating of the plant as well as establishing small scale extraction plants.

There will be reduction on the resources spent on importation of lemon grass fragrance by end users.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE WORK

This project work is on how perfumes are extracted and formulated from lemongrass. It further entails;

1. The synthetic and aromatic sources of perfumes.

2. The composition of perfumes and its concentration

3. The extraction methods and formulation process involved

4. The economic importance of lemongrass and the uses of lemongrass oil in perfume production process.

ABSTRACT

This work was carried out to investigate the effects of Burantashi extract on liver enzymes of albino male and female whistar rats. Burantashi is a popular seasoning agent to barbecued meat suya in Nigeria,mostly found in the northern part of the Nigeria. Liver Enzymes are those enzymes that plays important role in the liver both in function and regulation. Erectile dysfunction ED is defined as the consistent or recurrent inability of a man to attain or maintain penile erection, sufficient for sexual activity 2nd International consultation on sexual Dysfunction Paris, June 28th July 1st, 2003. Following the discovery and introduction of Burantashi research on the mechanism underlying penile erection, has had an enormous boost and many preclinical and clinical papers have been published in the last five years on the peripheral regulation of, and the mediators involved in human penile erection. The most widely accepted risk factors for ED are discussed. The research is focused on human data and the safety and effectiveness of Burantasni Stem as a phosphodiesterase 5 Inhibitors PDE5 used to treat Erectile Dysfunctions.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

PHYSIOLOGY OF ERECTION

Penile Erection involves an integration of complex physiological processes involving the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, hormonal and vascular systems. Any abnormality involving these systems whether from medications or disease has a significant impact on the ability to develop and sustain erection; ejaculate and experience orgasm. Laumann et al., 1999.

The physiological process of erection begins in the brain and involves the nervous and vascular system. The chemicals that initiate erection are neurotransmitters present in the brain. Any kind of stimulation physical or psychological, causes nerves to send message to the vascular system which result in significant blood flow to the penis. Two arteries in the penis supply blood to erectile tissues and the corpora cavernous which become engorged and expand as a result of increased blood flow and pressures. Because blood must stay in the penis to maintain rigidity. An erectile tissue is enclosed by tunicae, which is fibrous elastic sheathes cinch which prevents blood leaving he penis during electron. When muscle in the penis contract to stop the inflow of blood and open out flow channels and an electron is reserved.

HORMONAL INVOLVEMENT IN ERECTION

Oestrogen/Progesterone: These are female hormones that cause clitoral

erection. If the body has two much oestrogen and or too little testost erone, she ca n get very wet but can not erect her clitoral and Gspot. Haimen et al., 2002. Estrogen tends to increase the size of the bread, labia minors inner lips and clitoral hood, but shrinks the glans clitoris into the clitoral hood making it invisible. It also increases the thickness of the vaginal lining making the Gspot inaccessible. The mechanism of the clitoral and Gspot erection is the same as that of the penis. It is driven by the parasympathetic sexual nerve The neurotransmitter acetylcholine through the neurotransmitter. Nitric oxide and the erection dilator cGMP, which is continuously powered by the burning of testosterone without a testosterone burst and burning. She cannot pop the glans Clitoris and Gspot out. If she is on birth control pills there is a chance that her body is over flooded by estrogens and low progesterone. Over loaded liver cannot produce sufficient essential enzymes to synthesize sufficient NO, cGMP and testosterone to support the clitoral and Gspot erection infact excessive estrogen or progesterone in the body will shrink the penis, clitoral and Gspot, but likely increase the breast size under the excessive estrogen action.

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF PDE5 INHIBITION IN ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION.

A spinal reflex and the Larginine nitric oxide guanglyl cyclasecyclic guanosine monophonsphate cGMP pathway mediate smooth muscle relaxation that results in penile erection. Nerves and endothelial cells directly release nitric oxide in the penis, where it stimulates guanylyl cyclase to produce cGMP and lowers intracellular calcium level. This triggers relaxation of arterial and trabecular smooth muscle, leading to arterial dilation, venous constriction, and erection. Phosphodiesterases PDEs is the predominant phosphodiesterase in the corpus cavernosum. The catalytic site of PDE5 normally degrades cGMP and PDE5 inhibitors such as sildenafil potentiate endogenous increase in cGMP by inhibiting its breakdown at the catalytic site. Phosphorylation of PDE5 increases its enzymatic activity as well as the affinity of its allosteric noncatalytic/GAF domains sites for cGMP. Binding of cGMP to the allosteric site further stimulates enzymatic activity. Thus phosphorlation of PDE5 and binding of cGMP to the non catalytic site mediate negative feed back regulation of the cGMP pathway.

NITRIC OXIDE REGULATION OF PENILE ERECTION

Biology And Therapeutic ImplicationsFor approximately a decade now, substantial evidence has accrued supporting nitric oxide NO as the central component of major signal transduction system that ats in the penis to mediate the erectile response. This molecules subserve a

Unique biochemical cascade invading production of the potent second messenger molecule, 35 cyclic guanosine monophosphate cGMP and its activation of protein kinase G PKG which induces physiologic penile erection by regulating the state of penile smooth muscle contractility Burnett, 1997. In fact, current data support the notion that this NO based biochemical cascade represent a convergence of cellular biochemical and molecular inputs, which on the signal transduction regulatory level, is indispensable for the mechanism of penile erection Hedland et al., 2000. Consistent with the importance of NO radiation of penile erection, its biology in the penis is quite complex, involving multiple regulatory interactions, the molecule itself may target several biochemical mechanisms that achieve erectile tissue relaxation but is also the target of a host of modulatory influences that determines its release and mode of action in erectile tissue. At the same time, premier signal transduction mechanism has been exploited for therapeutic purposes, specifically in the clinical management of erectile dysfunction. Discoveries pertaining to the field of NO biology in the penis have, in recent years been rapidly translated into the clinical management of the first orally effective pharmacotherapy for erectile dysfunction, sildenafil citrate Viagra Goldstein et al., 1998.

NO BIOLOGY IN THE PENIS

Traditional understanding of the action of NO in the penis invokes the constitutive formation of this molecule under normal physiologic conditions with the expression and activities of the enzyme, sources localized to neural and endothelial components of the corporal tissue. The verification that NO derives from the autonomic innervations supplying the penis has directly supported the description of this molecule as a peripheral neurotransmitter of non adrenergic, no cholinergic1992 mediated penile erection Kim et al.,1991 the confirmation that the molecule also is produced within vascular and trabecular endothelium comprising the penile vascular supply, has offered additional support for the role of NO serving as an endothelial relaxation factor of penile erection kimoto et al., 1990, knispel et al., 1991, azadzoic et al., 1992, Hedlund et al., 2000.

ATIEOLOGY OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION

Erectile dysfunction ED is a sexual dysfunction that affects the reproductive systems of both men and women.

According to the definition by national Institute of Health consensus Development NIHCD panel on importance 1993 in males. It is sexual dysfunction characterized with the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. It is also known as male impotence or Baby D syndrome. While in women according to American psychiatric Association APA 1994, it is characterized with the persistant or recurrent inability to attain, or maintain until completion of the sexual activity,an adequate lubrication. Swelling response that otherwise is present during fem ale sexual arousal and sexual activity is thus prevented. Hence it is called woman impotence or female erectile dysfunction. NIH, 2005.

PREVALENCE OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION IN MEN.

Erectile dysfunction ED, varies in severity; some men have a total inability to achieve an erection others have inconsistent ability to achieve an erection, and still others can sustain only brief erection. The variation in severity of erectile dysfunction makes estimating its frequency difficult. Many men also are reluctant to discuss erectile dysfunction with their doctors, and thus, the condition is under diagnosed nevertheless experts have estimated that ED affects 30 million men in united sates, Again, according to the statistical research carried out by Adegunloye and Eze in 2002 and 1994 respectively in Nigeria, results show that about 2326.5 of men suffer from this condition while according to carey in 1990, discovered that about 4.9 of men suffer from the condition in the united states.

PREVALENCE OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION IN WOMEN.

Erection dysfunction which is known as female erectile dysfunction in woman occurs about 43 of American women NIH consensus conference, 1993. And this medical condition is a persistent or recurrent inability to attain or maintain clitoral erection until completion of the sexual activity, an adequate lubrication. Swelling response that is normally present during female sexual arousal and sexual activity is therefore absent. The individual having the condition is said to experience frigidity American Psychiatric Association, 1994. Again according to Otuba et al in 1989, about 8.7 of women suffer from this very condition in the United States while between 35.340, according t o Adegunloye in 2002 and Eze in 1994 of women in Nigeria suffer from this condition. Spector and carey in 1994 reported 510 in the united states.

AIM OF STUDY

The aim of this research is to find out the effects of Barantashi. pausinystalia yohimbe. Extract on the liver enzymes of albino male and female whistar rats.