| Content | ABSTRACT
Geo-electrical survey using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was carried out in the Sports Complex of Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun Delta State (FUPRE) in order to determine the groundwater potential of the area and the aquifer distribution. The Schlumberger electrode configuration was used with a maximum current electrode separation of 120m. A total of three (3) VES points were used where at VES1we had 23 measurements, 14 at VES2 and 22 at VES3. The data were analysed by computer aided iteration techniques using the resistivity modelling software (IPI2Win+IP). The geo-electric model parameters and curves were obtained from the software. The result of the analysis shows six geo-electric layers. The result of the survey has allowed the delineation of ground water potential in the study area and it is recommended sinking of a reliable borehole for good portable water be sited at locations VES1 and VES3 at recommended drill depth of 40.8m respectively.
CHAPTERONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Hidden beneath the varied landscapes of the Niger Delta is a treasured and important natural resource. It is neither petroleum nor natural gas, which are the natural resources that are certainly important and have brought wealth to many people. This hidden treasure is water, and to be more specific, groundwater. Groundwater occurs everywhere but sometimes its availability in economic quantity depends solely on the distribution of the subsurface geologic units that are referred to as the aquifers. This implies that where groundwater is not potentially endowed enough, there may be either complete lack or inadequacy due to increasing industrial and domestic needs (Akpan, 2006 and George, 2010). Although groundwater is a renewable resource, fear is being nursed about its imagined danger in case of inadequacy or lack. The universality of its utility heightens the degree of fear as no other fluid can replace the uncountable roles played by water in our communities. However, when many people think of a water source, they think of lakes, rivers and streams; in other words, surface water. Of all the usable freshwater in the world, approximately 97 percent of it is groundwater. According to the United Nations, 10 million cubic kilometres of water are stored underground. The United States Geological Survey states that there is about 4.2 million cubic kilometres of water within 0.8 kilometre of the earth’s surface.
Groundwater is the water that lies beneath the ground surface, filling the pore space between grains in bodies of sediment and elastic sedimentary rocks and filling cracks and cavity in all types of rocks (Plummer et al, 1999). Observations have shown that a good deal of surplus rainfall runs-off over the surface of the ground while the other part of it infiltrates underground and becomes the groundwater responsible for the springs, lakes and wells (Oseji et al., 2006). Groundwater is often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. Groundwater is also widely used as a source for drinking supply and irrigation (UNESCO, 2004). Although groundwater cannot be seen above the earth, a scope of techniques can be used in determining its availability in the subsurface. Surface investigation allows us in deciding the information about type, porosity, water content and density of subsurface condition. This is usually done with the help of electrical and seismic methods and without any drilling on the ground. The data supplied by these techniques are partly reliable and it is less expensive. It gives only indirect signs of groundwater so that the underground hydrologic record must be inferred from the subsurface investigations. Of all the surface geophysical methods, electrical resistivity has been employed most for groundwater exploration (Egbai, 2011). This is because the equipment is portable, simple, field logistics are easy and straightforward and the analysis of data is economical and less tedious than other methods (Zhody et al, 1993;
Egbai, 2011).
As time goes on the demand for water for various purposes will be increasing day by day due to increasing population within Federal University of Petroleum Resources Effurun.
This work is aimed at delineating the depth to groundwater using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) with the Schlumberger electrode configuration in the Sports Complex of FUPRE to be able to infer suitable locations where prolific boreholes can be sited.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Here this study focuses mainly on the delineating of good groundwater aquifer in the Sports Complex of FUPRE and how it can be evaluated using resistivity method. But first I will like to discuss briefly about the basic terms in groundwater study.
1.2.1 BASIC TERMS IN GROUNDWATER STUDY.
AQUIFER: An aquifer is a ground-water reservoir composed of geologic units that are saturated with water and sufficiently permeable to yield water in a usable quantity to wells and springs. Sand and gravel deposits, sandstone, limestone, and fractured crystalline rocks are examples of geological units that form aquifers. Aquifers provide two important functions:
(1) They transmit ground water from areas of recharge to areas of discharge.
(2)They provide a storage medium for useable quantities of groundwater.
The amount of water a material can hold depends upon its porosity. The size and degree of interconnection of pore spaces (permeability) determine the materials’ ability to transmit fluid.
UNCONFINED AQUIFERS: An unconfined aquifer is one in which a water table varies in undulating form and in slope, depending on areas of recharge and discharge, pump rate from wells, and permeability. Rises and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the volume of water in storage within an aquifer.
Fig.1.1 shows an idealized section through an unconfined aquifer; the upper aquifer is also unconfined. Contour maps and profiles of the water table can be prepared from elevations of water in wells that tap the aquifer to determine the quantities of water available and their distribution and movement. A special case of an unconfined aquifer involves perched water bodies (Fig.1.1). This occurs wherever a groundwater body is separated from the main groundwater by a relatively impermeable stratum of small areal extent and by the zone of aeration above the main body of groundwater. Clay lenses in sedimentary deposits often have shallow perched water bodies overlying them. Wells tapping these sources yield only temporary or small quantities of water.
CONFINED AQUIFERS: Confined aquifers also known as artesian or pressure aquifers. Occur where groundwater is confined under pressure greater than atmospheric by overlying relatively impermeable strata. In a well penetrating such an aquifer, the water level will rise above the bottom of the confining bed, as shown by the artesian and flowing wells. Water enters a confined aquifer in an area where the confining bed rises to the surface; where the confining bed ends underground, the aquifer becomes unconfined. A region supplying water to a confined area is known as a recharge area; water may also enter by leakage through a confining bed. Rises and falls of water in wells penetrating confined aquifers result primarily from changes in pressure rather than changes in storage volumes. Hence, confined aquifers display only small changes in storage and serve primarily as conduits for conveying water from recharge areas to locations of natural or artificial discharge.
Fig.1.1: Schematic Cross-sections of Aquifer Types (Modified after Hartan et al, 1989)
LEAKY AQUIFER: Aquifers that are completely confined or unconfined occur less frequently than do leaky, or semi-confined, aquifers. These are a common feature in alluvial valleys, plains, or former lake basins where a permeable stratum is overlain or underlain by a semi-pervious aquitard or semi-confining layer. Pumping from a well in a leaky aquifer removes water in two ways: by horizontal flow within the aquifer and by vertical flow through the aquitard into the aquifer.
AQUITARD: An aquitard is a partly permeable geologic formation. It transmits water at such a slow rate that the yield is insufficient. Pumping by wells is not possible. For example, sand lenses in a clay formation will form an aquitard.
AQUICLUDE: An aquiclude is composed of rock or sediment that acts as a barrier to groundwater flow. Aquiclude are made up of low porosity and low permeability rock/sediment such as shale or clay. Aquiclude have normally good storage capacity but low transmitting capacity.
AQUIFUGE: These are a geologic unit that does not have interconnecting pores, it is neither porous nor permeable thus can’t store or give out water e.g. igneous rocks.
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
This project is aimed at delineating the depth to groundwater using vertical electrical sounding (VES) with the Schlumberger electrode configuration in the Sports Complex
Federal University of Petroleum Resources Effurun, Delta state.
The Objectives of Study are:
1. To detect subsurface layering and its resistivity
2. To investigate the hydrological conditions of the area with the view of delineating the potential area for groundwater development.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The Significance of the Study is important in following ways:
• It will provide useful information on the ground water potential of the subsurface in the area of study, to aid the site for productive boreholes.
• Geo-electric details of the subsurface gotten from this study will give sound knowledge of the subsurface geology such as the subsurface layering and its resistivity, hydrological conditions and the structural geology.
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of study was directed towards data acquisition through Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) carried out in the study area alongside data interpretation to investigate the subsurface geologic characteristics for delineating a good aquifer. | ABSTRACTS
The study area is located within latitude 050 271 4611N and longitude 0080 431 46E, and the elevation of the place is 156m. The major rock types encountered in the area include gneisses, quartzite, amphibolites and marbles. These are intruded by pegmatite, quartz vein and aplite. The latest metamorphic episode occurred during the Pan-African Orogeny (600 ± 15ma) and the deformation left a structural trend of NS and NE-SW on the rocks. The occurrence of NW-SE structural trend are also shown on some rocks indicating that the Pan-African event did not completely alter earlier structural imprints. The study area is highly forested, undulating in slope and is a characteristic of a tropical rain forest in the area.
Chapter One: Introduction
The geology of southern Akor and its environs lies within the Oban Massif, a component of the crystalline basement of Nigeria. The Nigeria crystalline basement in turn forms a part of the African crystalline basement and covers over 50% of the total land surface of Nigeria . The rock assemblages encountered and identified consists of mainly schists, gneisses, Amphibolite, Charnockite, Marble and Quartzites and pegmatite, Quartz vein and Aplite emerging as Igneous intrusive rocks. The area mapped and studied (Akor) is predominated by intrusive rocks and these rocks are very well exposed where the topographyis slopy along streams and river channels.
Ekwueme et al (1992) proposed that charnockite rock's occur in both the eastern and western Oban Massif. The rocks occur as large coarse-grained, rounded and, massive bodies deformed together with the bounded gneisses. Ekwueme (1992) has shown that the diorities and charnockite are similar in composition and that the former may be retrogressive product of the latter.
The occurrences of weathering and tectonic activities were observed to have greatly affected the exposed outcrop and such effects from wet season had deformed these outcrops to boulders with reference to their shapes and sizes.
1.1 Location and accessibility
The area is located in the Eastern part of Akamkpa local Government area of theCross River State of Nigeria. It covers an estimated area of about 85sq.KM and constitutes part of the Oban Massif of the South-eastern Nigeria. The map area is largely made up of Ntebachot Akor. New Ntebeji and Ayip Eku all located in Akamkpa Local Government area of Cross River state.
About 90 percent of the area is inaccessible due to thick vegetation, steep valleys and hilly terrains. The only access road across the area is the Calabar-Ekang Road while hunters tracks provide minimal access into the area. | CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The mineralogical and chemical composition of clastic sedimentary rocks are controlled by various factors, including (1) the composition of their source rocks, (2) environmental parameters influencing the weathering of source rocks (e.g., atmosphericchemistry, temperature, rainfall and topography), (3) duration of weathering (4)transportation mechanisms of clastic material from source region to depocenters, (5)depositional environment (e.g., marine versus fresh water), and (6) post-depositional processes (e.g., diagenesis, metamorphism) (Hayashi et al., 1997). Numerousinvestigations are substantiating the above aspects pertaining to genesis of both ancient andmodern siliciclastic sediments (e.g., Dickenson et al., 1983; Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984; Bhatia, 1983; Roser and Korsch, 1988; McCann, 1991; Condie et al., 1992; Condie, 1993; McLennan et al., 1993; Nesbitt et al., 1996; Cullers, 2000; Hessler and Lowe 2006; Nagarajan et al., 2007; Spalletti et al., 2008). Several studies have also been focused on the identification of palaeotectonic settings of provenances based on geochemical signatures of siliciclastic rocks (e.g., Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch 1986; McLennan and Taylor, 1991). Among the terrigenous sedimentary rocks, shales are considered to represent the average crustal composition of the provenance much better than any other siliclastic rocks (e.g., McCulloch and Wasserburg, 1978). Shales retain most of the mineral constituents of the source and their bulk chemistry preserves the near-original signature of the provenance and more faithfully reveal palaeoweathering conditions (e.g., Pettijohn, 1975; Graver and Scott, 1995). The present note examines the geochemistry of sediment from part of the subsurface Niger Delta Basin province, attempts to constrain there paleo redox and tectonic setting and provenance. Owing to limitations of analytical facilities, the present work is based on chemical analyses data of major and select trace elements of the investigated sediment of the study area. | ABSTRACT
Aking-West and its environs is located within latitude 050 221N and 050 261N and longitude 0080 361E and 0080 381E. It covers an estimated area of about 72km2. The area is situated in Cross River State which falls within the Basement Complex of South Eastern Nigeria (Oban Massif). Geologically, the study area is made up of basement rocks, some of which are weathered. Form field studies, gneiss, granodiorite and pegmatite are the major rock types in the study area. Texturally, the rocks in this area range from medium to coarse grains due to the presence of low temperature minerals such as quartz and biotite. The formational events in the area led to the formation of joints, foliation and folds. The rock trend in the NE-SW direction indicating the pan-African orogeny. Petrographic analysis revealed the presence of migmatite gneiss, biotite gneiss, granodiorite and pegmatite as the metamorphic and igneous rocks in the study area. Petrogenetically, it is believed that different rocks encountered in the field have different origins which form the nature and place the rocks were derived. The rocks are either igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks. The drainage pattern of streams and rivers of the area is dendritic. The study area is characterized by thick vegetation cover consisting of variety of plants such as tall trees, shrubs, climbers and undergrowths. The economic potentials can be said to be promising due to the abundance of sand and aggregate materials which if exploited would boost the economy of Cross River State.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF PLATES
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY
1.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1.3 PRESENT INVESTIGATION
CHAPTER TWO
2 PHYSICAL SETTING
2.1 CLIMATE VEGETATION
2.2 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE
2.3 WEATHERING AND EROSION
CHAPTER THREE
3 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH
3.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE
3.2 TECHNIQUES
CHAPTER FOUR
4 PETROLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA
4.1 METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY
4.1.1 GNEISS
4.1.2 OCCURRENCE AND FIELD RELATION
4.1.3 PETROGRAPHY OF MIGMATITE GNEISS
4.1.4 PETROGRAPHY OF BIOTITE GNEISS
4.1.5 PETROGENESIS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
4.2 IGNEOUS PETROLOGY
4.2.1 OCCURRENCE AND FIELD RELATION
4.2.2 PETROGRAPHY OF GRANODIORITE
4.2.3 PETROGRAPHY OF PEGMATITE
4.2.4 PETROGENESIS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHAPTER FIVE
5 STRUCTURAL AND APPLIED GEOLOGY
5.1 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
5.1.1 FOLDS
5.1.2 FOLIATION
5.2 APPLIED GEOLOGY
5.2.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
5.2.2 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
5.2.3 HYDROGEOLOGY
CHAPTER SIX
6. METAMORPHISM AND GEOLOGIC HISTORY
6.1 METAMORPHISM
6.2 GEOLOGIC HISTORY
CHAPTER SEVEN
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: MAP OF CROSS RIVER SHOWING THE STUDY AREA
FIGURE2: GEOLOGIC MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT OF NIGERIA
FIGURE 3: CLIMATIC MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING THE STUDY AREA
FIGURE 4: ROSE DIAGRAM OF FOLD
FIGURE 5: ROSE DIAGRAM OF FOLIATION | ABSTRACT
This work investigates the extent of Arsenic pollution of borehole waters in Onitsha and environs. Fifteen samples of drinking water sourced from boreholes were randomly collected and analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and the technique employed is wet oxidation method. The results of Arsenic concentration obtained from the boreholes ranged from 0.00 mg/L (53.33% of boreholes) to 1.099mg/L (46.67% of boreholes). Seven out of the fifteen samples were observed to be concentrated with Arsenic ranging from 0.16mg/L to 1.099mg/L with majority of the concentrations occurring at areas adjacent to River
Niger and Nwangene Lake. The results were found to be above the Maximum
Contamination Level (MCL) of 0.01mg/L set by the World Health Organization (W.H.O, 2011) therefore, the sources were found to be contaminated with abnormal concentration of arsenic and the inhabitants who consume this water without proper treatment are vulnerable to severe health hazards. The high Arsenic concentrations in the study area could be attributed to both natural and anthropogenic processes such as improper discharge of untreated industrial effluents and sewage, urban storm runoff dissolving and leaching organic and inorganic matter into the subsurface ground, undersurface weathering, agro products, automobile workshops and emissions. The discharge of these effluents into water bodies leads to the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fishes consequently, when humans feed on these aquatic organisms it results to serious health issues therefore, there is need for effluents to be treated before being discharged into the environment.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1.1 SUBSURFACE WATER
70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water and 97% of the water is saline the quantity and the quality of water is equally important. Subsurface (groundwater) makes about 30.1% of the Earths freshwater as compared to 0.3% surface water and 68.7% Ice caps and Glaciers. Water is referred to as a universal solvent because it can dissolve many types of substances, but human and animal require water that contains fewer impurities. Drinking water comes from ground (subsurface) sources such as ground water and aquifers. It can also be obtained from surface water bodies such as rivers, streams and glacier other sources including rain, hail, snow and sea through desalination, surface water picks up different minerals resulting from the presence of animal or human activities. While for the subsurface water, the contaminants come from leachate, landfills, septic systems and the ambient rocks. Similarly, indiscriminate disposal from agricultural chemicals (Pesticides, Herbicides, Insecticides and Fertilizers) and household cleaning products. The contaminants in ground water take more time to be cleaned because it moves slowly and isn’t exposed to the natural cleansing benefits of air, sunlight and micro-organism.
Generally, the quality of drinking water is determined based on the appearance, taste, colour and odour of the water but all these do not really tell if the water should be free from hazardous compounds as the Geology of an area, its rock types, their weathered products, precipitation from rainfall, urban storm-water runoff and human activities in an environment contributes immensely to the chemistry of subsurface and surface water. Also, the quality of water is a measure of the suitability of the water for a designated use such as; drinking, agriculture, recreation, laundry and industrial usage based on selected physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The N.I.S (Nigerian Industrial standard), S.O.N (StandardOrganization of Nigeria) and W.H.O (World Health Organization) set a maximum contaminant level in drinking water supplied to municipal or population. When a standard or guideline is exceeded in the municipal or community water system, the state is required to take proper action to improve water quality level including treating the water through filtration or aeration blending water from several sources to reduce contaminants including inorganic chemicals such as salts, metals and mineral. These substances occur naturally in geological structures or sometimes caused by mining, industrial and agricultural activities. These chemical can badly affect human health when they are consumed in large amount.
There are two main sources of water supply that are available to man, surface water that includes: rivers, lakes, stream, drainage areas which funnels water toward the holding reservoirs and subsurface or ground water which includes wells, springs and horizontal galleries. The water resources are stressed by a number of factors, including cattle grazing, pollution and rapidly-growing urban areas. Over a billion people lack access to safe portable water supply globally and out of this number, more than 300 million people living in rural areas of SubSaharan Africa are being affected (Bresine, 2007).
1.2 ARSENIC POLLUTION
General Description:
Arsenic is an element that exists in oxidation states of 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, and -3, that is found naturally in air, water, soil, rocks and minerals, food, and even living organisms in low concentrations. In water, it is most likely to be present as arsenate, with an oxidation state of 5, if the water is oxygenated. However, under reducing conditions (<200 mV), it is more likely to be present as Arsenite, with an oxidation state of 3.
Compound
Chemical Abstracts
Service Number
Molecular formula
Arsenic
7440-38-2
As
Arsenic trioxide
1327-53-3
As2O3
Arsenic pentoxide
1303-28-2
As2O5
Arsenic sulphide
1303-33-9
As2S5
Dimethylarsenic acid (DMA)
75-60-5
(CH3)2AsO(OH)
Monomethylarsonic acid (MMA)
124-58-3
(CH3)AsO(OH)2
Lead arsenate
10102-48-0
PbHAsO4
Potassium arsenate
7784-41-0
KH2AsO4
Potassium arsenite
10124-50-2
KAsO2HAsO2
Table 1.21 Occurrence of Arsenic (Source: Adapted from W.H.O., 2011).
Major Uses:
Arsenicals are used commercially and industrially as alloying agents in the manufacture of transistors, lasers and semiconductors, as well as in the processing of glass, pigments, textiles, paper, metal adhesives, wood preservatives, paints, dyes and ammunition. They are also used in the hide tanning process and, as well as pesticides, herbicides, feed additives and pharmaceuticals.
Environmental Levels (Water, Soil and Food):
The level of Arsenic in natural waters, including open ocean seawater, generally ranges between 1 and 2 µg/l. Concentrations may be elevated, however, in areas with volcanic rock and sulfide mineral deposits; in areas containing natural sources, where levels as high as 12 mg/l have been reported; near anthropogenic sources, such as mining and agrochemical manufacture; and in geothermal waters (mean 500 µg/l, maximum 25 mg/l). Mean Arsenic concentrations in sediment range from 5 to 3000 mg/kg; the higher levels occur in areas of contamination but are generally unrelated to Arsenic concentrations in water. The total estimated daily dietary intake of Arsenic may vary widely, mainly because of wide variations in the consumption of fish and shellfish. Most data reported are for total arsenic intake and do not reflect the possible variation in intake of the more toxic inorganic arsenic species. Limited data indicate that approximately 25% of the Arsenic present in food is inorganic, but this is highly dependent upon the type of food. Fish and meat are the main sources of dietary intake of Arsenic levels ranging from 0.4 to 118 mg/kg have been reported in marine fish sold for human consumption, and concentrations in meat and poultry can be as high as 0.44 mg/kg.
Health Effects of Arsenic:
Many scientific studies conclude that long term exposure to inorganic Arsenic through drinking water is associated with relatively high risks of cancer of the lungs and bladder and, to a lesser extent, with an increased risk of cancer of the skin, liver, and kidneys. Recent studies have also associated chronic Arsenic exposure through drinking water with a number of other serious health effects, including developmental defects, stillbirth, and spontaneous abortion as well as heart attacks, strokes, diabetes mellitus, and high blood pressure. Arsenic can also cause liver damage, nerve damage, and skin abnormalities (for example; discoloration and unusual growths, which may eventually turn cancerous). Some of these effects may take years to develop. Arsine is considered to be the most toxic form, followed by the Arsenites (Arsenic (III)), the arsenates (Arsenic (V)) and organic arsenic compounds.
Early clinical symptoms of acute intoxication include abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, muscular pain and weakness, with flushing of the skin. These symptoms are often followed by numbness and tingling of the extremities, muscular cramping and the appearance of a papular erythematous rash. Within a month, symptoms may include burning paraesthesias of the extremities, palmoplantar hyperkeratosis,
Mee’s lines on fingernails and progressive deterioration in motor and sensory responses.
Signs of chronic Arsenicism, including dermal lesions such as hyperpigmentation and Hypopigmentation, peripheral neuropathy, skin cancer, bladder and lung cancers and peripheral vascular disease, have been observed in populations ingesting Arsenic contaminated drinking-water. Dermal lesions were the most commonly observed symptom, occurring after minimum exposure periods of approximately 5 years. Effects on the cardiovascular system were observed in children consuming Arsenic contaminated water (mean concentration 0.6 mg/l) for an average of 7 years.
There have been numerous epidemiological studies that have examined the risk of various cancers associated with arsenic ingestion through drinking-water. Many of these studies are ecological-type studies, and many suffer from methodological flaws, particularly in the measurement of exposure. However, there is overwhelming evidence that consumption of elevated levels of arsenic through drinking water is causally related to the development of cancer at several sites, particularly skin, bladder and lung. In several parts of the world, arsenic-induced disease, including cancer, is a significant public health problem. Because trivalent inorganic Arsenic has greater reactivity and toxicity than pentavalent inorganic arsenic, it is generally believed that the trivalent form is the carcinogen. However, there remain considerable uncertainty and controversy over both the mechanism of carcinogenicity and the shape of the dose–response curve at low intakes. Recently, the trivalent methylated metabolites, MMA (III) and DMA (III), have been found to be more genotoxic than inorganic arsenic.
Fig 1.2.1 Targeted organs by Arsenic (Source: Adapted from W.H.O., 2011).
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The objective of the study can be subdivided into the following:
• To create both individual and public awareness of Arsenic pollution in the study area.
• To have knowledge regarding the diseases caused by Arsenic poisoning and mitigating measures available to prevent contamination.
• To identify Arsenic risk region, level of education, gender and age as important determinants of Arsenic knowledge.
• To know the extent of Arsenic pollution of the subsurface water in the study area.
• To prepare a study report that integrates observations made in the field.
• To interpret through observations made in the field and laboratory results the history and processes that lead to the sourcesof Arsenic pollution in this region.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The findings of this study will aid in making existing education programs more effective and in reducing the risk of developing Arsenic-related illnesses. Also, it will assist policy makers in considering the effectiveness of current education efforts and in crafting future public awareness campaigns of Arsenic risks.
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY
An extract of Onitsha map was made from the Google Earth (map). The map covers Onitsha North and South Local Government Area, Okpoko in Ogbaru Local Government Area and part of Obosi and Nkpor, both in Idemili North Local Government Area. Some of the boreholes from which water samples were collected are located in residential buildings, markets, churches and boreholes close to dump sites.
The study method employed was the direct observation, sampling and carrying out in-situ test right there in the field.
1.6 STUDY AREA
Fig. 1.6 Map of the study area (Source: Adapted from Google Earth, 2015).
1.6.1 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY
Onitsha is a commercial, industrial, educational and ecclesiastical city on the East bank of the River Niger in Anambra State, Southeastern Nigeria with a high population density of over 1million. It lies between latitude 06002I56II and 06038I34IINorth of the Equator and longitude 06037I30II and 06059I30II East of the Greenwich meridian and occupies an area of about 49,000km2. It is bounded by Anambra West and East local government area and Oyi in the North, Idemili North and South in the East, Ogbaru local government area in the South and inthe West by the River Niger.
Onitsha and environs is accessible by major roads such as the Onitsha-Asaba express way through the Niger Bridge linking the Eastern states to the Western part of the country, Onitsha-Enugu express way to the North and Onitsha-Owerri express way to the South and East. There are many minor and street roads that interconnect the towns within and outside the city.
1.6.2 TOPOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE AND HYDROGEOLOGY
The relief features of the study area are unique. The elevation ranges from 33m to 450m above sea level with average elevation of 250m. Onitsha falls into two main landform regions: a highland region of moderate elevation that covers most of the North central-Northeast, East-Southeast and a low plain to the Northwest-WestSouthwest of the highland. The highland region is a low asymmetrical ridge or cuesta in the Northern portion of the Awka-Orlu uplands, which trend roughly Southeast to Northwest, it is highest in the Southeast about 450m above sea level and gradually decreases in height to only 33m in the Northwest on the banks of the Anambra River and the Niger.
The drainage shows that the basin is having low relief of the terrain and is oval tending towards elongated shape and the network of the drainage is the dendritic pattern which indicates homogeneity in texture and lack of structural control. Dumping of refuse along culverts and channels has eventually blocked the channel of flow into the River Niger. The Niger River flows in the North-South direction.
The flow direction of the ground water direction of the ground water is multidirectional which was influenced by the piezo metric heights, there is also a depression (sinkhole) at the middle aquifer; this is as result of the population density with several functional boreholes taping its water from the middle aquifer on an hourly basis.
1.6.3 CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND OCCUPATION
Onitsha climate is classified as tropical. When compared with winter, the summers have much more rainfall. The average temperature in Onitsha is 27.00C while the average rainfall is 1828mm. Rainfall (precipitation) is lowest in December, with an average of 12mm. In September precipitation reaches its peak, with an average of 316mm. At an average temperature of 28.90C March is the hottest month of the year while at 25.40C on average, July is the coldest month of the year. Between the driest and wettest months, the difference in precipitation is 304mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 3.50C. Relative humidity is generally high throughout the year, between 70% and 180%. The highest figures are experienced during the wet season and the lowest during the dry season.
The vegetation of this region is light forest interspersed with tall grasses. The trees are not too tall and include both hardwood and softwood varieties; domesticated trees such as the mango, palm tree, guava, orange and almond are found. Much of the natural vegetation has been felled and the land utilized for development.
The occupation in Onitsha and its environs is mainly trading, services (tourism, hospitality, and civil service),and manufacturing, industrial and religious activities. The Onitsha Main market is reputed as the largest market in Africa which attracts people from different parts of the continent while, the city is also reputed as the number one (1) transit city in the country because most of the road transport services have their headquarters at Onitsha and it hosts the largest River port in the country which is on the River Niger.
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW
An assessment of heavy metal pollution of effluents from three food industries within Onitsha in Anambra state, Nigeria (Nwosu et al, 2014) showed that the mean levels of all the heavy metals were above the limit allowed by the Nigeria
Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV, 1991) and the World Health
Organization (W.H.O, 2011) in industrial effluent. It also revealed that apart from Arsenic, the concentrations of Mercury, Iron, Lead, Chromium, and Cadmium were not significant when the effluents were compared to each other. Arsenic concentration ranges from 0.205mg/L to 1.387mg/L.
Arsenic pollution of surface and subsurface water in Onitsha, Nigeria (Ezeabasili et al, 2014) revealed the pollution status of Onitsha metropolis water which indicates that the concentration of both surface and subsurface water is above the World Health Organization (W.H.O, 2011) standard. Surface concentration ranges from 0.2001mg/L (River Niger upstream) to 1.5883mg/L (River Niger central drainage surface) while Groundwater concentration ranges from 0.00mg/L to 1.2507mg/L. This also shows that the pollution of surface water is greater than that of the subsurface sources.
Furthermore, Histopathological alterations in the liver and kidney of the fish
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus due to heavy metals in Niger River (Nsofor et al, 2014) revealed the harmful effects of chemical pollutants like heavy metals in the fish Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus of Niger River Onitsha as well as pathological alterations in liver and kidney tissues of the fish. Also, Arsenic in water column is significantly lower than those in the fish. | CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Land is the basis for every form of physical development and constitutes the primary medium for food production, for the provision of sheets and utilities, for the manufacture of goods and the establishment of institutions to support the basic needs of modern communities (Lanus ad Olufemi 2006). Ukaejiofor (2009) posited that land at the heart of social, political and economic life of the most African countries. He stressed further that, it is the key factor for economic growth and development of every nation and the foundation for shelter in the urban areas as well as the source of livelihood in the rural areas. Therefore, it is an indisputable source of employment and wealth (Idoma and Muhammed, 2014). In recent times, the struggle for available land resource has often resulted to land disputes and conflicts. A land dispute is a disagreement over the possession/control of land between two or more terrestial entities or over the possession or control of land, usually between a new state and the occupying power (Afzalur, 2010).
Robert (2012) asserted that land disputes are often related to the possession of natural resources such as rivers, fertile farmland, mineral or oil resources although the disputes can also be driven by culture, religion and ethnic nationalism. Land disputes result often from vague and unclear language in a treaty that set up the original boundary. According to Afzalur (2010) land disputes are a major cause of wars and terorism as states often try to assert their sovereignty over a territory through invasion, and non-state entities try to influence the actions of politicians through terrorism. International law does not support the use of force by one state to annex the territory of another state.
Deininger and Castagnini (2004) observed that widows are mostly affected by land conflicts and are the worst hit of land disputes. Studies have shown that female-headed households and widows are particularly affected and that the enactment of the 1990 Land Use Act has failed to reduce the number of pending land conflicts. The government of Nigeria has suggested amending the above said Land Use Act in a bid to resolve the ever emerging land conflicts between the Land lords and the sitting tenants. This suggests that, especially in Africa, attention to land-related conflicts and exploration of ways to prevent and speedily resolve them would be an important area for policy as well as research. Land is a treasured resource for development in every respect and at all levels especially in the sub Saharan regions, and it has become a source of conflict (Afzalur, 2010).
Evidence shows that the highest numbers of cases registered by Local Council Courts from village level to sub-county level are land related (Michael, 1992). According to interactions with the Local Council members in Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State, these cases range from unclear boundaries, grabbing, disputes of inheritance to deceased property, sell of “air” (land that is not there) and forceful eviction of sitting tenants by the land lords like those in Warri Estates. In Nigeria, over 80% of its population practice agriculture and these depend on land, this is also the case in Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State especially in the Ogbe-Ijaw sub-region unlike in Warri Metropolis which is predominately an Urban Place. What should be observed in this region is that land is limited due to the high population that has lead to land fragmentation. This has in turn hindered the socio-economic development of the region due to the various land disputes resulting from the scarcity of land resources in Ogbe-Ijaw community.
Studies (such as Michael, 1992; Lanus ad Olufemi 2006; Ukaejiofor, 2009; Afzalur, 2010; Robert, 2012) have shown that there is no sufficient empirical data to show the effect of land dispute on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw, Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State and as such there is no basis where land disputes can be handled. Little attention has actually been devoted to the study of land disputes despite evidence on increasing incidences of such disputes. It is therefore; against this background that the researcher will investigate the effect of land dispute on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community, Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The major problem associated with land dispute is the loss of lives and valuable properties. Land disputes often occur between individuals, groups and organizations. Land dispute in recent times have caused more damage and harm than good to the modern day society (Ukaejiofor, 2009). Land dispute often hinder the socio-economic activities of most urban and rural dwellers leading to economic hardship, poverty, health problems, food scarcity, low standard of living, among others. This is evidence that the problems emanating from land disputes are enormous. It has been discovered in repeated studies that land disputes often results to death and serious injury during conflict battles especially in situations where it is communal disputes or territorial conflicts (Fischer, 2012).
It has been observed that the number of land cases in most Nigerian towns, villages and cities has sometimes led to war which has displaced citizens from their natural habitats thereby hindering their socio-economic activities and day-to-day business activities in the areas (Robert, 2012). Presently, parties have still not come to terms on how to resolve land disputes especially between villages, towns and cities. Communal conflicts still dominate the southern parts of Nigeria since the discovery of oil in the Niger Delta Region. The need for arable land has also increased over the years giving room for conflict issues and land disputes. No matter the effort made by the federal, state and local government to resolve land disputes between villages, towns, and cities, land disputes is still common in these areas especially among the villagers who see land possession as wealth and inheritance (Fischer and Ferlie, 2013).
It is no doubt today that, the problems associated with land disputes could hinder the socio-economic activities and well-being of most urban and rural dwellers of Ogbe-Ijaw community and its environs. The socio-economic activities of the people in Ogbe-Ijaw community which ranges from primary activities (farming, agriculture, fishing, etc), secondary activities (trading, business, artesian, etc) to tertiary activities (banking, industries, factories, etc) have been seriously hindered by land disputes. Businesses are often shut down during crisis, war and conflicts resulting from land disputes. This often leads to loss of perishable goods, increase in food prices, high cost of living, unstable society, loss of infrastructural facilities, damage to available community services and basic/social facilities and poor infrastructural development.
Evidences have shown that land dispute has a direct effect on the socio-economic activities of the Ogbe-Ijaw people. Studies also shown that not much effort have been directed towards examining these effects land dispute has on the socio-economic activities of the Ogbe-Ijaw people especially on finding possible ways to address these problems. It has also been discovered that there is dealt in literature on the effect of land dispute on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community. This study therefore seeks to fill this gap which previous studies have failed to cover and thereafter address the aforementioned problems which necessitated this study.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to examine the effect of land dispute on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community, Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State.
In order to achieve the above stated aim, the following objectives were designed to guide the study. They include to:
identify the socio-economic activities in the area;
identify the causes of land disputes in the study area;
examine the consequent effect of land dispute on the socio-economic activities of the people in Ogbe-Ijaw community;
examine the problems associated with land dispute in the study area;
find possible solutions to the problems associated with land dispute in Ogbe-Ijaw community.
1.4 Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to guide the study;
What are the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community?
What are the causes of land disputes in Ogbe-Ijaw community?
What are the effects of land dispute on the socio-economic activities of the people in Ogbe-Ijaw community?
What are the problems associated with land dispute in Ogbe-Ijaw community?
Are there possible solutions to the problems associated with land dispute in Ogbe-Ijaw community?
1.5 Research Hypothesis
The following hypothesis stated in the null and alternative form will be tested in this study;
H0: Land dispute has no significant effect on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community.
H1: Land dispute has a significant effect on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The study is intended to establish how land disputes have affected the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community, Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State. It may also enhance and build a body of knowledge on the causes of land disputes and the consequent effects of land disputes on the socio-economic activities in the study area. This study will also help to unfold the numerous problems associated with land disputes as well as suggesting possible ways to solve such problems. Besides these the Research is a partial fulfillment leading to the Award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Geography and Regional Planning and opening up for further future research undertakings.
1.7 Scope and Limitation of the study
This study is restricted to assessing the effects of the land disputes on the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community, Warri South-West L.G.A of Delta State with particular emphasis on the causes of land disputes, consequences and how it has affected the socio-economic activities in Ogbe-Ijaw community.
It will be limited to the period of one academic year, as delimitation to the scope of study for better management and during this period many land disputes will be experienced. This period is optimal to have a clear picture of the land disputes in Ogbe-Ijaw community. The study will be carried out in the various quarters that make up Ogbe-Ijaw community comprising of urban and rural areas. This study is also limited by inadequate finance, time, unavailability of resource materials, language and communication barrier.
1.8 STUDY AREA
Ogbe-Ijaw is an ancient community in the Niger Delta coast of Nigeria. Ogbe-Ijaw is well known to be one of the Ijaw communities in Nigeria. Ogbe-Ijaw community is the administrative headquarter of Warri-South-West Local Government Area of Delta State.
1.8.1 Location and Size
Ogbe-Ijaw lies within latitude 50521N and 50451N of the equator and longitude 50751E and 50311E of the Greenwich meridian. From West to South, the area is wrapped by the Forcadoes on the west, Warri South L.G.A on the east, Burutu L.G.A on the South and Warri North L.G.A on the north. Ogbe-Ijaw has an estimated population of over 116,000 people (NPC, 2006). The location and size of the study area is such that favours oil exploitation activities and man has through his various human and anthropogenic activities (resources exploitation) destroyed the natural environment. This has given rise for various land disputes in the community. |
