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PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES AND CRIME PREVENTION IN NIGER STATE

ABSTRACT
This project is on Private security companies and crime prevention in Niger state. This study is focused on the private security companies and crime prevention in Niger State. The study identified methods of providing security needs of Nigerlites during the traditional era and through this, factors that necessitate the establishment of PSCs in Nigeria. This study also evaluate the effectiveness of PSCs in their security functions, it also highlight major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their functions and project strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery especially as it affects PSCs and the police. The hypotheses were tested using chi-square (x2). Hypothesis I revealed that the presence of guards/PSCs has reduced crime in the society which further corroborates hypothesis II that both the guards and subscribers feel satisfied with the services provided by these companies. And Hypothesis III which revealed that trained guards are more effective than those not trained emphasized the need for adequate training of PSCs/guards for the purpose of securing the society.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
This project is on Private security companies and crime prevention in Niger state. Human history has always been punctuated with societal concern for security at both the individual and collective levels. This has particularly been the case because security affects peoples livelihood. The privatization of security has now become a global phenomenon (Hyden, 1995). This is the result of a number of factors including general human insecurity, the globalization phenomenon, the privatization of public enterprises, the professionalization of armed and police forces, drive for profit maximization, liberalization of the arms trade, general unending African conflict and the crashing of the twin towers and the pentagon on the 11th of September, 2001 in United States (Holmqvist, 2005). In the contemporary world, the privatization of security has spread throughout the world to an unprecedented level that it is no longer possible to ignore, let alone comprehend (Howe, 1998).
The many types of modern private security outfits available today may be traced to Allan Pinkerton, who founded Pinkertons security services in 1850 with the motto we never sleep (Schmalleger, 1995). It was also the largest of the private firms headquartered in New York. The Pinkerton Service had a logo which was an open eye, to signify constant vigilance on its office doors. The term private eye is thought to have developed from the use of this logo. In another development, Schmalleger (1995) affirmed that Henry Wells and William Fargo built their popularly known Wells Fargo company in 1852 and supplied detective and protective services (private guard and investigator) to areas of West of Missouri.
Thus, much has changed since the early days of private security firms (private policing). Today, services are provided for hospitals, manufacturing plants, communication industries, retirement homes, hotels, casinos, exclusive communities and clubs. Others are nuclear storage facilities and reactors, and many other types of businesses such as information security that aid the protection of personnel.
Following a history of private guards and security practice in Nigeria which could be traced to royalty, religion, social class or pedigree; the practice of private security gradually attracted a deserved attention when it became commercialized and obviously conflicted with the social contract idea which states that only the state is capable of arrest and punishment (Kuna, 1999). Thus, it became imperative that the practice had to be regulated within the confines of duty, definition and laws. For instance, security in the traditional Nigerian society squarely lay with the immediate and extended families; hence any member of the family that violates any of the norms was in danger of being ostracized by the group until reparations and necessary purification and cleansing rituals were undertaken by the family (Igbo, 2007).
Thus, changes have taken place from the traditional Nigerian societies to the present as a result of modernization. These changes occasioned the encroachment of western institutions on moral standards of the society which has implications for general life and security particularly on Nigerians. Other factors include urbanization, formal education and capitalist economic system. As a result a range of crimes emanated quite different from what was known in the traditional society, which may require more sophisticated security approach. Some of these crimes include murder, theft, assault, and suicide, pick pocketing, drug abuse, counterfeiting, fraud, forgery, smuggling, unlawful possession of dangerous weapons, prostitution, white- collar crime, advanced fee fraud (419) corruption, rape, and a host of others which are all prevalent in modern Nigeria(Ebbe, 1981 cited in Igbo, 2007).
Thus, Ochefu and Idrees (2002), posited that, the Nupes and Gwagyis who are predominant groups in Niger state with migrant Hausas prevent crimes through proper socialization of the young ones i.e. application of communal approach to socialization, instilling of the fear of pain in punishment…later, other prevention measures include the organization of the Dogarai (local police), the Ninety (90) days cleansing fast as reparation; Others include the use of scarecrows, charms and fetish materials and the use of Ndakogboya or Kuti (Masquerade) popularly known among the Nupes.
Also, according to Igbo (2007), the end of the civil war witnessed not only the return of old criminals to the street; but also the graduation of new and more sophisticated ones. This singular assertion indicates that the current state of security network in the country may be under serious threat as crime waves continue to rise unabated.
The most recent of the threats to security in Nigeria is the emergence of kidnapping and terrorism which have been enhanced by the widespread use of firearms by criminals. This indeed facilitated the modus operandi of these criminals, thereby enhancing complete change in criminal activities as cases of aircraft hijacking and assassinations of prominent Nigerians and bomb explosions in various corners of the country became rampant.
In addition to earlier mentioned criminal activities, today law and order also pose serious
security challenges in the country. According to Sunday Ehindaro, the former Inspector General
of Police, perhaps the most potent threat to national security of any country is crime
(Dambazau, 2007: 152). This statement is also in line with the report of the Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) in a survey called ÒRISKWIREÓ which concluded that, Nigeria is an insecure environment for commercial operations. Security risk arises at three levels. The first comes from rising violent crime (from) simple armed robbery (to) carjacking and violent attacks….Second, companies can be subjected to direct attack or blackmail…facilities can be vandalized and staff kidnapped. Third, incidences of inter-communal violence have risen. Nigeria’s ill equipped police force . has been ineffective in stemming the crime wave. (Dambazau, 2007: 53).
Therefore, the ineffectiveness of the Nigeria police and the concern of Nigerians for security led to the emergence of guards and private security companies in the country to augment the activities of the security agencies and work in line with the laid down rules and regulations. Just like the vigilante, private security companies are also an informal arrangement to keep with the pace of rising crime rate in Nigeria.
However, as is the case in all countries, the citizens of Nigeria are highly concerned about their security and this concern has been expressed through the growth of Private Security Companies (PSCs). The last decade has seen a proliferation of PSCs in a country of about 140 million people (Census, 2006). The presence of these companies is conspicuous in the premises of both private and public sector organizations. This is in spite of the fact that in both urban and rural areas, security matters are largely in the hands of private actors than in those of the state. Thus, the function of private security companies was handled by the Nigeria immigration service in the Federal Ministry of Interior. Until 1st September, 2005 when the then Minister of Internal Affairs handed over all documents of private guard companies to the Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps (NSCDC, 2009).
There are two principal landmarks in the regulation of PSCs in Nigeria. The first is the enactment and approval for creation of PSCs on 15th December 1986. This law was cited as Act No 43 and consolidated under the laws of the Federation of Nigeria 1990 in chapter 367. The second is the handover from the Nigeria immigration service to Nigeria civil defense corps cited currently as chapter 30 in Private Guard Companies (PGC) Act (Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004). This law is specifically enacted for the regulation and licensing of private guard companies which must be wholly owned by Nigerians and other matters-ancillary thereto (PGCs Act, Cap367, 1990).
Finally, the perception of ineffective policing and rising crime gave impetus to the emergence of a plethora of non-state policing groups (Olaniyi, 2005). The state has shared its security responsibility with a variety of non-political organizations including vigilante groups, religious vigilante, ethnic militias and private security guards.
Based on the above and most especially considering its growing importance, the activities of the PSCs necessarily became a subject of study. This has led the researcher to the choice of private security companies and crime prevention in Nigeria with Niger state as a case study.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Law, order and security were maintained in the pre-colonial societies through thorough socialization of members of the society using peer group, age grade and religious institutions (Ogunbameru and Rotimi, 2006). Thus, violators of societal norms, customs, and traditions of various communal groups faced serious sanctions which ranged from ostracizing, payment of reparation and purification and consequently the performing of cleansing rituals (Igbo, 2007). For instance in Niger state, criminals pay for their crimes through serving various punishment such as digging of dungeons, working in the EmirÕs farm, quarrying, and in cases which involve witchcraft and murder, banishment or ninety (90) days cleansing fast was observed as reparation (Idrees and Ochefu, 2002). The occurrence of these crimes was often at a lower rate because these sanctions also helped in inducing fear into the people on the negative consequences of committing crime in the society.
These roles changed during the colonial era following the introduction of formal social control. The Native Authority (NA) police assumed the role of maintaining law, order and security, while the citizens simply became on-lookers because community security was seen as the responsibility of the government. At this point, insecurity also started growing due to the nature of native administration. This is because Nationalist activities were seen and conceived of as an attack on the colonialists (Kuna, 1999). Therefore, the brutality of the NA police became instrumental to the growth of the nationalist movement at this time in the society.
During the post-colonial era, especially after the civil war in Nigeria, the activities of criminals grew almost out of hand as a result of the proliferation of firearms which were found in all nooks and crannies of the country. This hastened the growth of crime on the one hand, and also brought about the need to further secure the urban communities where robbery and the nefarious acts of criminals were frequent. Therefore, urban areas like Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu, and Kano started having neighborhood guards due to the inefficiency of the police (Dambazau, 2007; Igbo, 2007)
In describing insecurity in Nigerian urban cities, Osahon (1996 in Dogon-yaro, 1996) stated that:
Actually we are under severe siege already as a people. Fear now rules our daily lives. Ugly, harrowing fear of the known and unknown. When we go out in the mornings, we are not sure we will return home safely and with our cars and other property including even the shoes on our feet or the earÂring in our ears. If we are lucky to arrive to find our homes unraided in our absence, we sleep with one eye open expecting the worst any moment of the night. In other words, we do not sleep any more. in our ability to perform daily activities (Dogon-yaro, 1996:224).
This situation also existed in other growing cities in Niger state such as Minna, Kontagora, Bida, Suleja, and a few other towns. The public response to perpetual fear and insecurity was to take laws into its own hands. In July 1987, butchers, traders, and unemployed persons in Minna vented their wrath over police harassment, intimidation, and extortion in a six- hour rampage against police and soldiers that was quelled by military units (The library of Congress Country Studies and CIA Factbook, 1991).
Again, in May, 2009, two lecturers from School of Nursing Bida were bathed with acid in their staff quarters by students suspected to have been withdrawn by the institution for having failed in all their first semester examinations. It was noted that the staff quarters lacked security guards unlike the school premises and the culprits were not apprehended (Sunday Trust, May 17, 2009). However, in July, 2009, Newline news paper reported that, the family of one Mr. James Omeize, the proprietor of Brighter International School in Minna was kidnapped in Minna and the kidnapper demanded 20 million naira for his release in far away Benin City in Edo state.
Other insecurity instances abound in the state as many cases are not even reported to the police or captured by any vigilant watch dog. The Nigeria police has always came under severe criticism; being accused of falling victims to every negative unfavorable character, devoid of any measure commensurate to their oath of office. In other words, this weakened capacity of the Nigeria Police to fight crime (i.e shortage of staff, obsolete equipment, corruption, defective training programmes, police discretion etc.) has led to increase in other policing agencies across the country over the years. It is due to the importance attached to security of lives and property that both the professional and non-professional security outfits came into existence in these urban centers.
After about two decades of the flourishing of private security industry in Niger State, it appears PSCs have not received much scholarly attention in terms of the services they provide. One wonders if the seeming increase in the number of private security companies in Niger state is caused by the desire for improved security or other ulterior motives. It is in the light of the above problems, that this research work is aimed at examining the private security companies in Niger state.
1.3 Research Questions
The following research questions are formulated to guide the study:- I. How were the security needs of the people in Niger state provided during the traditional era?
II. What factors necessitated the establishment of PSCs?
III. How effective are these PSCs in their security functions?
IV. What are their major constraints in carrying out these functions?
V. What are the strategies for overcoming these constraints in order to make them more
efficient?
VI. What is the relationship between PSCs and the Police?
1.4 Research Objectives
The general objective of this research is to determine how effective private security companies are in crime prevention in Niger state.
The following are the specific objectives of the research;
I. To find out how security needs of people in Niger state were provided during the traditional era.
II. To determine the factors that necessitated the establishment of PSCs
III. To assess the effectiveness of these PSCs in their security functions
IV. To examine the major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their functions.
V. To identify the strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery.
VI. To examine the relationship between PSCs and the Police
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study has both theoretical and practical significance.
(a) Theoretical significance: this study will contribute to existing literature on PSCs/PSGs especially in the area of crime prevention in Nigeria. The study will also provide the baseline information on typologies of crime prevention in Niger state and stimulate research in the field by other researchers and academicians. Moreover, the study will provide reference document to other scholars who want to engage in studies of PSCs and crime prevention.
(b) Practical significance: the findings of this study will enhance the understanding of policy makers on strategies and dynamics of crime prevention companies. This will lead to a design of programmes that will enhance crime prevention and improve security of lives and property in Niger state. This study is also significant for the fact that the findings will assist in extending and deepening the understanding of policy makers to improve crime prevention through the PSCs. This will reveal, if any, the challenges of working with wide range of Private Security Companies and provide suggestions on how the challenges identified can be overcome.
1.6 operationalization of Concepts
The following terms are used in this research and are defined based on their usage in this context. Beneficiaries: Refers to individuals, private and public enterprises, ministries, agencies, directorates etc. who subscribes to the services of the PSCs.
Crime: Refers to wrongdoing that threatens the security or well-being of society and usually considered an act (evil) punishable by law.
Crime Prevention: It refers to a pattern of attitudes and behaviors directed both at reducing the threat of crime and enhancing the sense of safety and security to positively influence the quality of life.. .and to develop environments where crime cannot flourish
Formal Security Sector: Refers to police and the army which the constitution of a country formally recognizes for the defense, peace, total security and integrity of the country.
National Security: Refers to safeguarding the interest of the citizenry and providing the type of atmosphere that is free of threats that could inhibit the pursuit of the good of all. It is about the processes and measures required to preserve law and order.
Private Security: Refers to those self-employed individuals and privately funded business entities and organizations providing security -related services to specific clientele for a fee, for the individual or entity that retains or employs them, for themselves, in order to protect their persons, private property or interests from various hazards.
Private Policing: This refers to the performance of policing functions by individuals or agencies other than those directly owned and controlled by the state.
Security: This means protection from physical or direct violence, and freedom from fear; a sense of safety and relative wellbeing in political, legal, socio-economic and cultural terms, it is also, a measure of protection from structural violence and security of lives and properties as enshrined in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

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NamePRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES AND CRIME PREVENTION IN NIGER STATE removePREVALENCE AND PATTERNS OF PSYCHO ACTIVE SUBSTANCE USE AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN DALA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KANO STATE, NIGERIA removePORT SECURITY-Threats and VulnerabilitSies removeCRIME CONTROL THROUGH AUDITING AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE NATIONAL DRUG AGENCY IMO STATE removeCRIME CONTROL INFORMATION FLOW IN A RESTRUCTURED NIGERIA NATIONAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM: Election and Census Fraud Solution removeCRIME CONTROL IN POLITICAL VIOLENCE AND THE ELECTORAL PROCESS IN NIGERIA AN OVERVIEW OF THE 2007 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION remove
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DescriptionABSTRACT This project is on Private security companies and crime prevention in Niger state. This study is focused on the private security companies and crime prevention in Niger State. The study identified methods of providing security needs of Nigerlites during the traditional era and through this, factors that necessitate the establishment of PSCs in Nigeria. This study also evaluate the effectiveness of PSCs in their security functions, it also highlight major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their functions and project strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery especially as it affects PSCs and the police. The hypotheses were tested using chi-square (x2). Hypothesis I revealed that the presence of guards/PSCs has reduced crime in the society which further corroborates hypothesis II that both the guards and subscribers feel satisfied with the services provided by these companies. And Hypothesis III which revealed that trained guards are more effective than those not trained emphasized the need for adequate training of PSCs/guards for the purpose of securing the society.ABSTRACT This project is on Prevalence and patterns of psycho active substance use among senior secondary school students in Dala local government area of kano state, Nigeria. The study was designed to determine prevalence and patterns of Psychoactive Substance use among Senior Secondary School Students in Dala Local Government Area (LGA), Kano State Nigeria. The study adopted a cross sectional descriptive survey design. Simple random sampling procedure was used to select two Secondary Schools out of the ten Government Senior Secondary School in Dala LGA, of Kano State. Both Schools have a combined population of 2293 students made up 1202 boys and 1096 girls. The two Schools sample were Government Secondary School Kurna Asabe for boys and Government Senior Secondary School Kuka bulukiya for girls. The instrument for Data collection was a WHO Youth Drug Survey (WHOYDSQ) adapted questionnaire. The reliability of the instrument was established using a test re-test and computed using Pearson Moment Correlation. Coefficient of 0.82 was obtained. Data generated was subjected to descriptive statistics and analysed using Chi-square. The prevalence of psychoactive substance use among Government Senior Secondary School in Dala LGA, of Kano State shows that majority (91.1%) of the respondents have been using psychoactive substances. The commonest substances used were kola nut (87.4%), tobacco (15%) and cannabis (5.5%). more than half of the users of each of the substances take it occasionally, using them on one to five days in a month except kolanut taken on twenty or more days in a month. They include male (52.9%), female (47.1%). Majority (68.1%) of the respondents were between 18-20 years. Most of the respondents who use psychoactive substances were introduced by their friends (60.6%), family (27.6%) and by nobody (5.7%). Most (27.9%) first use kolanut at the age less than 10 years, alcoholic beverages at the age of 11-12years (25.6%) while others like tobacco, cannabis at 19-and above years (38.3%). Major reasons for using psychoactive substance include to be sociable (25.4%) and for enjoyment (24.4%). There was significant difference (p < 0.05) between Males and females in psychoactive substance use. The pattern of use is dependent on the type of psychoactive substances (p < 0.05). Also the psychoactive substances use based on lifetime use is dependent on the age at first use (p < 0.05). In conclusion the prevalence of substance abuse among Senior Secondary School students is high as such Government, Parents and Teachers needs to joint hands and address the problems.Abstract The main objective of this thesis is to identify the threats and the vulnerabilities concerning Nigeria port, and finally recommend measure to overcome the identified threats and vulÂnerabilities. Various categories of potential threats and vulnerabilities have been studied throughout the literature review. However, because each port presents a unique sets of threats and vulnerabilities, there was a need to look critically into how Nigeria port operaÂtions are being conducted in other to identity the potential threats and vulnerabilities perÂtaining to the said port. This study applied Case Study Approach as a research strategy by using Qualitative research method as a means of exploring and understanding how individual or group ascribe to social or human problem, and also identify new theoretical propositions or managerial actions is needed. The empirical data for this study was collected through primary and secondary sources. With primary source, questionnaire, observation as well as informal discussion were used. Whereas with secondary source, raw data and publish summaries that have been colÂlected by organizations and individual, excluding researchers were used. The results of the study revealed the strength and the vulnerabilities within security system at the port of Nigeria. Apart from the strength and weaknesses, potential threats that conÂfront the security systems, were also identified through the result. This thesis provides the recommendation needed to tackle the identified vulnerabilities and threats that are likely to disturb the effectiveness and efficient operating of the security systems. In the future, it is important to identify how human factor impact the successful implementaÂtion of port security measures. Further research in this particular area will help reduce the threat that human factor poses to the successful implementation of Port security measuresABSTRACT This research is on Crime control through auditing and accountability in the national drug agency Imo state.  The study dealt on the effectiveness of auditing and accountability in the National drug agency. The rapid development of financial management initiative in National drug agency and financial control has led to the need for improved performance measurement, reporting and individual accountability. The researcher t3ested five hypotheses which stability results mat states that. An audited work must be independently examined, opinions must be expressed by a qualified and appointed auditor in pursuance/compliance with the relevant statutory obligations; that an auditor must posses the expected qualities the auditor generates office is a watching of public fund and as such, government must be appropriately configured. Based on this finding the researcher recommended that government should at all level employ professional accountants to ensure that funds are expanded in accordance with the terms by which they are appropriated while auditors should conduct their activity independently in order to protect the interest of the public. Thus, with integrity and in full compliance with the law guiding their profession.ABSTRACT This research is on crime control information flow in a restructured Nigeria national identification system: election and census fraud solution. An effective national identification system is a necessity in any national government for the proper implementation and execution of its governmental policies and duties. This thesis aims at restructuring Nigeria national identification system so as to make it effective in addressing its political and civil problems, which ranges from manipulated census count figures and electoral fraud to economic fraud and civil problems. These problems are arguably due to Nigeria's ineffective national identification system. We proposed in this thesis, a restructured Nigeria national identification system to help address these political and civil problems. The proposed identification system is designed such that it will help to address identification problems in general, reduce elections and census count fraud to a minimum and be useful for the execution of policies in sectors of the economy.?ABSTRACT This research is on Crime control in political violence and the electoral process in Nigeria an overview of the 2007 presidential election. One of the basic machineries of any representative democratic system is the electoral process. The experience of the western representative democracy in Nigeria can be traced from the Clifford and Macpherson constitutions for years respectively. This was elaborated at independence in the second republic and subsequent periods. Very ugly experience has characterized the activities with the electoral process that constitutes the burning questions in this work within these sparing periods Nigeria political history has been filled with malpractice fraud and therefore violence. The election of the first republic displayed ethnicity in the second republic presidential election is been records its ugly tendencies but in refined form. This time, money and corruption led the race in electoral malpractices of the past and present on the political system. The study finally traces these political problems of the country to basic socio-institutional origins of the ethnicity class, material consciousness and others.
ContentCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study This project is on Private security companies and crime prevention in Niger state. Human history has always been punctuated with societal concern for security at both the individual and collective levels. This has particularly been the case because security affects peoples livelihood. The privatization of security has now become a global phenomenon (Hyden, 1995). This is the result of a number of factors including general human insecurity, the globalization phenomenon, the privatization of public enterprises, the professionalization of armed and police forces, drive for profit maximization, liberalization of the arms trade, general unending African conflict and the crashing of the twin towers and the pentagon on the 11th of September, 2001 in United States (Holmqvist, 2005). In the contemporary world, the privatization of security has spread throughout the world to an unprecedented level that it is no longer possible to ignore, let alone comprehend (Howe, 1998). The many types of modern private security outfits available today may be traced to Allan Pinkerton, who founded Pinkertons security services in 1850 with the motto we never sleep (Schmalleger, 1995). It was also the largest of the private firms headquartered in New York. The Pinkerton Service had a logo which was an open eye, to signify constant vigilance on its office doors. The term private eye is thought to have developed from the use of this logo. In another development, Schmalleger (1995) affirmed that Henry Wells and William Fargo built their popularly known Wells Fargo company in 1852 and supplied detective and protective services (private guard and investigator) to areas of West of Missouri. Thus, much has changed since the early days of private security firms (private policing). Today, services are provided for hospitals, manufacturing plants, communication industries, retirement homes, hotels, casinos, exclusive communities and clubs. Others are nuclear storage facilities and reactors, and many other types of businesses such as information security that aid the protection of personnel. Following a history of private guards and security practice in Nigeria which could be traced to royalty, religion, social class or pedigree; the practice of private security gradually attracted a deserved attention when it became commercialized and obviously conflicted with the social contract idea which states that only the state is capable of arrest and punishment (Kuna, 1999). Thus, it became imperative that the practice had to be regulated within the confines of duty, definition and laws. For instance, security in the traditional Nigerian society squarely lay with the immediate and extended families; hence any member of the family that violates any of the norms was in danger of being ostracized by the group until reparations and necessary purification and cleansing rituals were undertaken by the family (Igbo, 2007). Thus, changes have taken place from the traditional Nigerian societies to the present as a result of modernization. These changes occasioned the encroachment of western institutions on moral standards of the society which has implications for general life and security particularly on Nigerians. Other factors include urbanization, formal education and capitalist economic system. As a result a range of crimes emanated quite different from what was known in the traditional society, which may require more sophisticated security approach. Some of these crimes include murder, theft, assault, and suicide, pick pocketing, drug abuse, counterfeiting, fraud, forgery, smuggling, unlawful possession of dangerous weapons, prostitution, white- collar crime, advanced fee fraud (419) corruption, rape, and a host of others which are all prevalent in modern Nigeria(Ebbe, 1981 cited in Igbo, 2007). Thus, Ochefu and Idrees (2002), posited that, the Nupes and Gwagyis who are predominant groups in Niger state with migrant Hausas prevent crimes through proper socialization of the young ones i.e. application of communal approach to socialization, instilling of the fear of pain in punishment...later, other prevention measures include the organization of the Dogarai (local police), the Ninety (90) days cleansing fast as reparation; Others include the use of scarecrows, charms and fetish materials and the use of Ndakogboya or Kuti (Masquerade) popularly known among the Nupes. Also, according to Igbo (2007), the end of the civil war witnessed not only the return of old criminals to the street; but also the graduation of new and more sophisticated ones. This singular assertion indicates that the current state of security network in the country may be under serious threat as crime waves continue to rise unabated. The most recent of the threats to security in Nigeria is the emergence of kidnapping and terrorism which have been enhanced by the widespread use of firearms by criminals. This indeed facilitated the modus operandi of these criminals, thereby enhancing complete change in criminal activities as cases of aircraft hijacking and assassinations of prominent Nigerians and bomb explosions in various corners of the country became rampant. In addition to earlier mentioned criminal activities, today law and order also pose serious security challenges in the country. According to Sunday Ehindaro, the former Inspector General of Police, perhaps the most potent threat to national security of any country is crime (Dambazau, 2007: 152). This statement is also in line with the report of the Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) in a survey called ÒRISKWIREÓ which concluded that, Nigeria is an insecure environment for commercial operations. Security risk arises at three levels. The first comes from rising violent crime (from) simple armed robbery (to) carjacking and violent attacks....Second, companies can be subjected to direct attack or blackmail...facilities can be vandalized and staff kidnapped. Third, incidences of inter-communal violence have risen. Nigeria's ill equipped police force . has been ineffective in stemming the crime wave. (Dambazau, 2007: 53). Therefore, the ineffectiveness of the Nigeria police and the concern of Nigerians for security led to the emergence of guards and private security companies in the country to augment the activities of the security agencies and work in line with the laid down rules and regulations. Just like the vigilante, private security companies are also an informal arrangement to keep with the pace of rising crime rate in Nigeria. However, as is the case in all countries, the citizens of Nigeria are highly concerned about their security and this concern has been expressed through the growth of Private Security Companies (PSCs). The last decade has seen a proliferation of PSCs in a country of about 140 million people (Census, 2006). The presence of these companies is conspicuous in the premises of both private and public sector organizations. This is in spite of the fact that in both urban and rural areas, security matters are largely in the hands of private actors than in those of the state. Thus, the function of private security companies was handled by the Nigeria immigration service in the Federal Ministry of Interior. Until 1st September, 2005 when the then Minister of Internal Affairs handed over all documents of private guard companies to the Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps (NSCDC, 2009). There are two principal landmarks in the regulation of PSCs in Nigeria. The first is the enactment and approval for creation of PSCs on 15th December 1986. This law was cited as Act No 43 and consolidated under the laws of the Federation of Nigeria 1990 in chapter 367. The second is the handover from the Nigeria immigration service to Nigeria civil defense corps cited currently as chapter 30 in Private Guard Companies (PGC) Act (Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004). This law is specifically enacted for the regulation and licensing of private guard companies which must be wholly owned by Nigerians and other matters-ancillary thereto (PGCs Act, Cap367, 1990). Finally, the perception of ineffective policing and rising crime gave impetus to the emergence of a plethora of non-state policing groups (Olaniyi, 2005). The state has shared its security responsibility with a variety of non-political organizations including vigilante groups, religious vigilante, ethnic militias and private security guards. Based on the above and most especially considering its growing importance, the activities of the PSCs necessarily became a subject of study. This has led the researcher to the choice of private security companies and crime prevention in Nigeria with Niger state as a case study. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Law, order and security were maintained in the pre-colonial societies through thorough socialization of members of the society using peer group, age grade and religious institutions (Ogunbameru and Rotimi, 2006). Thus, violators of societal norms, customs, and traditions of various communal groups faced serious sanctions which ranged from ostracizing, payment of reparation and purification and consequently the performing of cleansing rituals (Igbo, 2007). For instance in Niger state, criminals pay for their crimes through serving various punishment such as digging of dungeons, working in the EmirÕs farm, quarrying, and in cases which involve witchcraft and murder, banishment or ninety (90) days cleansing fast was observed as reparation (Idrees and Ochefu, 2002). The occurrence of these crimes was often at a lower rate because these sanctions also helped in inducing fear into the people on the negative consequences of committing crime in the society. These roles changed during the colonial era following the introduction of formal social control. The Native Authority (NA) police assumed the role of maintaining law, order and security, while the citizens simply became on-lookers because community security was seen as the responsibility of the government. At this point, insecurity also started growing due to the nature of native administration. This is because Nationalist activities were seen and conceived of as an attack on the colonialists (Kuna, 1999). Therefore, the brutality of the NA police became instrumental to the growth of the nationalist movement at this time in the society. During the post-colonial era, especially after the civil war in Nigeria, the activities of criminals grew almost out of hand as a result of the proliferation of firearms which were found in all nooks and crannies of the country. This hastened the growth of crime on the one hand, and also brought about the need to further secure the urban communities where robbery and the nefarious acts of criminals were frequent. Therefore, urban areas like Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu, and Kano started having neighborhood guards due to the inefficiency of the police (Dambazau, 2007; Igbo, 2007) In describing insecurity in Nigerian urban cities, Osahon (1996 in Dogon-yaro, 1996) stated that: Actually we are under severe siege already as a people. Fear now rules our daily lives. Ugly, harrowing fear of the known and unknown. When we go out in the mornings, we are not sure we will return home safely and with our cars and other property including even the shoes on our feet or the earÂring in our ears. If we are lucky to arrive to find our homes unraided in our absence, we sleep with one eye open expecting the worst any moment of the night. In other words, we do not sleep any more. in our ability to perform daily activities (Dogon-yaro, 1996:224). This situation also existed in other growing cities in Niger state such as Minna, Kontagora, Bida, Suleja, and a few other towns. The public response to perpetual fear and insecurity was to take laws into its own hands. In July 1987, butchers, traders, and unemployed persons in Minna vented their wrath over police harassment, intimidation, and extortion in a six- hour rampage against police and soldiers that was quelled by military units (The library of Congress Country Studies and CIA Factbook, 1991). Again, in May, 2009, two lecturers from School of Nursing Bida were bathed with acid in their staff quarters by students suspected to have been withdrawn by the institution for having failed in all their first semester examinations. It was noted that the staff quarters lacked security guards unlike the school premises and the culprits were not apprehended (Sunday Trust, May 17, 2009). However, in July, 2009, Newline news paper reported that, the family of one Mr. James Omeize, the proprietor of Brighter International School in Minna was kidnapped in Minna and the kidnapper demanded 20 million naira for his release in far away Benin City in Edo state. Other insecurity instances abound in the state as many cases are not even reported to the police or captured by any vigilant watch dog. The Nigeria police has always came under severe criticism; being accused of falling victims to every negative unfavorable character, devoid of any measure commensurate to their oath of office. In other words, this weakened capacity of the Nigeria Police to fight crime (i.e shortage of staff, obsolete equipment, corruption, defective training programmes, police discretion etc.) has led to increase in other policing agencies across the country over the years. It is due to the importance attached to security of lives and property that both the professional and non-professional security outfits came into existence in these urban centers. After about two decades of the flourishing of private security industry in Niger State, it appears PSCs have not received much scholarly attention in terms of the services they provide. One wonders if the seeming increase in the number of private security companies in Niger state is caused by the desire for improved security or other ulterior motives. It is in the light of the above problems, that this research work is aimed at examining the private security companies in Niger state. 1.3 Research Questions The following research questions are formulated to guide the study:- I. How were the security needs of the people in Niger state provided during the traditional era? II. What factors necessitated the establishment of PSCs? III. How effective are these PSCs in their security functions? IV. What are their major constraints in carrying out these functions? V. What are the strategies for overcoming these constraints in order to make them more efficient? VI. What is the relationship between PSCs and the Police? 1.4 Research Objectives The general objective of this research is to determine how effective private security companies are in crime prevention in Niger state. The following are the specific objectives of the research; I. To find out how security needs of people in Niger state were provided during the traditional era. II. To determine the factors that necessitated the establishment of PSCs III. To assess the effectiveness of these PSCs in their security functions IV. To examine the major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their functions. V. To identify the strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery. VI. To examine the relationship between PSCs and the Police 1.5 Significance of the Study This study has both theoretical and practical significance. (a) Theoretical significance: this study will contribute to existing literature on PSCs/PSGs especially in the area of crime prevention in Nigeria. The study will also provide the baseline information on typologies of crime prevention in Niger state and stimulate research in the field by other researchers and academicians. Moreover, the study will provide reference document to other scholars who want to engage in studies of PSCs and crime prevention. (b) Practical significance: the findings of this study will enhance the understanding of policy makers on strategies and dynamics of crime prevention companies. This will lead to a design of programmes that will enhance crime prevention and improve security of lives and property in Niger state. This study is also significant for the fact that the findings will assist in extending and deepening the understanding of policy makers to improve crime prevention through the PSCs. This will reveal, if any, the challenges of working with wide range of Private Security Companies and provide suggestions on how the challenges identified can be overcome. 1.6 operationalization of Concepts The following terms are used in this research and are defined based on their usage in this context. Beneficiaries: Refers to individuals, private and public enterprises, ministries, agencies, directorates etc. who subscribes to the services of the PSCs. Crime: Refers to wrongdoing that threatens the security or well-being of society and usually considered an act (evil) punishable by law. Crime Prevention: It refers to a pattern of attitudes and behaviors directed both at reducing the threat of crime and enhancing the sense of safety and security to positively influence the quality of life.. .and to develop environments where crime cannot flourish Formal Security Sector: Refers to police and the army which the constitution of a country formally recognizes for the defense, peace, total security and integrity of the country. National Security: Refers to safeguarding the interest of the citizenry and providing the type of atmosphere that is free of threats that could inhibit the pursuit of the good of all. It is about the processes and measures required to preserve law and order. Private Security: Refers to those self-employed individuals and privately funded business entities and organizations providing security -related services to specific clientele for a fee, for the individual or entity that retains or employs them, for themselves, in order to protect their persons, private property or interests from various hazards. Private Policing: This refers to the performance of policing functions by individuals or agencies other than those directly owned and controlled by the state. Security: This means protection from physical or direct violence, and freedom from fear; a sense of safety and relative wellbeing in political, legal, socio-economic and cultural terms, it is also, a measure of protection from structural violence and security of lives and properties as enshrined in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study This project is on Prevalence and patterns of psycho active substance use among senior secondary school students in Dala local government area of kano state, Nigeria. Psychoactive Substance use and dependence cause a significant burden to the individuals and societies throughout the world. The World Health Report (2010) indicated that 8.9% of the total burden of disease comes from the use of psychoactive substances. The report showed that tobacco accounted for 4.1%, alcohol 4%, and illicit drugs 0.8% of the burden of disease in 2010. Much of the burden attributable to substance use and dependence is the result of a wide variety of health and social problems. Data from the (World Health Organization, 2011) show large-scale seizures of cocaine, heroin, cannabis and amphetamine-type stimulants in different parts of the world. Availability of cocaine, heroin and cannabis depends on the level of cultivation in source countries and on the success or failure of trafficking organizations. However, even with increased levels of law enforcement activities, there always seems to be enough available to users. According to (UNODC, 2011) estimates show that about 200 million people make illicit use of one type of illicit substance or another. Psychoactive substance use is a social problem that has spread and increased rapidly in educational institutions especially among secondary school students (Neeraja, 2011). This social problem is considered an issue of serious concern as it adversely affects the lives and performance of students involved as well as the harmonious functioning of the entire structure of the society. Use of psychoactive drugs and other associated problems are inimical to the survival and effective functioning of human societies. A significant number of untimely deaths and accidents have been linked to the activities of persons under the influence of one psychoactive drug or the other (Shelly, 2010). Drug abuse is viewed by different authorities in various forms. Neeraja (2011) defined substance abuse as the dependence on a drug or other chemical substances leading to the effect that are detrimental to the individuals physical and mental health or the welfare of others. According to Smelzer, Bare, Hinkle, and Cheever (2008) substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of drug use that causes physical and emotional harm with the potential for disruption of daily life. From these definitions, it can be deduced that substance abuse is the misuse of one or more drugs which could be prescribed by a health practitioner with the intention to alter the way one feels, thinks or behaves and it is associated with consequences which include physical and emotional harm to the person. The African Symposium (2010) viewed substance abuse as the improper use or application of drugs by a person without proper knowledge of the drugs and without due prescription from a qualified medical practitioner. This definition focuses on psychoactive drugs. All drugs can be abused to an extent that it turns into addiction when the drug user is unable to stop the use of the drugs despite the harmful effects on the users social, personal and economic lives. The problem of substance abuse is so grave that though it was originally conceived as the problem of a select few, it has extended beyond the usual characteristics of abusers being males, adults and urban based people, to now include females, youngsters and rural dwellers (Rocha, 2009). These abusers erroneously believe that drugs enhance their performance, put them in good mood etc. The accompanying problems of this act constitute a major threat to the well being of the society (Ajala, 2009). The youths in Nigeria like many countries of the world are increasingly developing addiction to psychoactive substances. The National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA, 2011) collected drugs use and abuse data from schools, records of patients admitted at mental health institutions for drug problems and interview of persons arrested for drug offences. The result showed that youths constitute the high risk group for drug trafficking and abuse. Friends and school mates account for about 90% of the source of influence of the use and abuse of various psychoactive substances. In Nigeria, alcohol and cigarette are legal substances but, the two have been discovered to cause physical damage to human bodies. It has been reported that smoking tobacco causes 90.0% of lung cancer, 30.0% of all cancers, and 80.0% of other chronic lung diseases (Sale 2008). Apart from these health implications, according to Stephen (2010), alcohol and cigarette are said to be gateway drugs to other more potent psychoactive drugs like marijuana, heroin and cocaine. The future of any community, society, state or nation is tied to the character of the adolescent in that particular place, area or locality. It is also said that "The youth are the leaders of tomorrow". Therefore responsible youth in the society indicates responsible and brighter future of that society and also the reverse is the case. In our society people are known to have had problems that had made them to adopt various measures to cope with such problems and live successfully within the confines of societal normative values. While some people take solace in lawful ways others resort to unlawful and unhealthy measures such as the use of drugs or psychoactive substances to the extent of abusing them, hence resulting in addiction. According to Edum (2006) the adolescent in our society are not left out in this, as they are either influenced by peer group while others do so because of the easy availability of the abused substances, others also watch on television and films and some read in books and so try to experiment to experience the effects. The effects of specific psychoactive substance vary depending on their mechanism of action, the amount consumed and the history of the user among other factors. An ugly fact that is with us in the recent time is road traffic accident related to psychoactive substance use as well as increased crime rate in Nigeria, though a number of measures are put in place to check this menace. This includes the establishment of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) through Degree 48 of 1989 and 33 of 1990. However, in spite of these measures people especially the adolescents continue to use psychoactive drugs illicitly with its attendant problems. Kano state is the most populated state in Northern Nigeria (NPC, 2006). The use of psychoactive Substance in this state is the order of the day, evidence by increase in crimes of different nature, failure at examination, abandoning school and poor performance in all aspects of life etc. Dala local government is the largest, most populated local government Area of Kano State. One myth about the youth and adolescents in Dala local government is drug and substance use evidently shown by increase in crime, abandoning and inconsistencies in school, as well as failure in examination. These reasons encouraged and motivated the desire to investigate the prevalence and pattern of psychoactive substance use among the senior government secondary school students of the largest local government area in the middle of Kano City, Dala Local Government Area of Kano State, Nigeria. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Substance use is not a strange phenomenon; the global, regional and national dimension of it are documented. It is in recognition of the complexity of the problem that 26th June of every year has been declared as the International Day Against Abuse and illicit trafficking by United Nations. In its June, 2003 report, the United Nations Children and Education Fund (UNICEF) stated that the problem of HIV/AIDS is inextricably connected to a range of problems, among which is drug abuse among children and young people. Similarly, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) pointed out that drug abuse among area boys in Nigeria has been reported as the cause of delinquent behaviors and crime. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2010) believes that young people are more vulnerable to suffering physical, emotional and social harm from their own or other peoples drug use. It also identifies strong links between the high rate of drinking, violent sexual behavior, traffic and other accidents and drug use. In relation to tobacco, World Health Organization also estimates that about 250 million children and adolescents who live in developing countries like Nigeria are likely to be killed by tobacco (Stephen, 2010). The United Nations office on Drug and Crime (UNODC) partly attributes the prevalence of drug use in Nigeria to street hawking of drugs and pharmaceutical preparation. The prevalence rate of adolescents substance and drug abuse in our society poses a great concern to health care providers as some end up as addicts. This is quite substantial in Kano state. According to NDLEA (2010) reports, Kano State is the highest in terms of people arrested with the case of drug trafficking and suspected drug addicts (638 arrested suspects) followed by Katsina (411) and Rivers (347) etc. According to NDLEA (2010) most of the people arrested in Kano state for drug addicts and trafficking are from Dala local government and neighboring communities and majority constitutes secondary school drop outs. Therefore based on the foregoing reasons, the researcher deemed it necessary to determine the prevalence and patterns of psychoactive substance use among the senior secondary school students in Dala LGA, Kano State Nigeria. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The main purpose of the study is to determine the prevalence and pattern of psychoactive substance use among Government senior secondary school students in Dala LGA of Kano State, Nigeria. Objectives. The Specific Objectives are to:
  1. Identify the characteristics of students who use identified substances.
  2. Establish the prevalence of substance use among the senior secondary school students in Dala Local Government.
  3. Identify the patterns of substance use among the senior secondary students.
  4. Identify the substances commonly used by the Senior Secondary students.
  5. Identify the sources of influence of drug use among secondary school Students.
  6. Determine the age of onset of substance use among secondary school student.
  7. Identify the reasons why senior secondary school students use drugs
1.4 Research Questions
  • What are the characteristics of students who abuse drugs?
  • What is the prevalence rate of psychoactive substance use among the senior secondary school students in Dala Local Government, Kano State?
  • What are the patterns of substance use among senior secondary school students?
  • What are the substances commonly used by the senior secondary school students?
  • What are the sources of influence of drug use among senior secondary school in Dala?
  • What is the age of onset of substance use among secondary school student in Dala local government?
  • What are the reasons senior secondary school students used drugs?
1.5 Hypothesis
  • There is no significant difference between Male and Female in secondary school in drug abuse.
  • There is no significant difference in pattern of drug abuse in days per month based on Psychoactive Substances
  • There is no significant relationship of respondents age range at the first use based on life time use of psychoactive
1.6 Significance of the Study The present study will reveal the prevalence, pattern, types and sources of psychoactive substances used by secondary school children. It will also reveal the characteristics of the students who use drugs and the problems students encounter as a result of drug use. These findings are essential as they will help in understanding the overall social, academic and drug problems of the students and youth in Kano state. This finding would be useful to the parents, teachers, police and the drug law enforcement agency (NDLEA) as well as other bodies concerned with checking drug abuse problems in Dala LGA of Kano state and Nigeria at large. The findings will provide a source of reference for intervention programmes in Kano state. It is also hoped that the findings of this study will be useful for social monitoring and alerting people to the signs of Substance use so as to enable early diagnosis and treatment of affected persons. It will also assist in planning of preventive strategies for substance use in our secondary schools across the country. The finding of this study will be useful to future researchers on the topic, as they will build on the strength and limitations of the study. And the finding of the study may spur them to form anti-psychoactive substance use clubs and associations. The activities of these groups can reach the wider society and will assist in curbing the menace of substance abuse in Dala LGA, Kano State and the country at large. The present study wills no doubt, spur interest for further studies. 1.7 Scope of the Study The scope of this study is delimited to on Government Senior Secondary School Students in Dala LGA of Kano State. The study will be delimited to prevalence and pattern of psychoactive substance use among Government Senior secondary school student in Dala LGA, Kano state. 1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
  • Psychoactive Substance: This refers to any substance which may be a drug or not but has the property of altering the mood in form of stimulation or distortion of perception.
  • Psychoactive substance use refers to the use of any substance which may be drugs or not that has the property of altering the mood in form of stimulation or distortion of perception.
  • Drug Abuse- refers to the illegal or excessive drug use; deliberate use of an illegal drug or of too much of a prescribed drugs.
  • Prevalence of psychoactive substance use: refers to the proportion of a population found to have used a psychoactive substance or drugs.
  • Pattern of psychoactive substance use: Is the process addicts use which include Modes of Taking, frequencies and Style of psychoactive substance abuse etc.
  • Source of influence: Those factors that introduce student to the drugs or substance use e.g peer group, family etc.
  • Secondary school students: Are students in the second phase of secondary education of 6-3-3-4 education system in Nigeria who finishes primary school.
  • Senior Secondary School Students refers to the students in SSI, SSII and SSIII of secondary school education system in Nigeria.
  • Non Medical drug use this is improper or illegal use of drugs or taking it in excessive doses without any medical reasons.
CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION This section of the study presents a brief outline of the research, the problem and objective of the research. It goes further to explain research questions, delimitation and structure of the study. 1.2 Background of Study Thomas Friedman (2007,8) described in his book entitled, ÒThe world is FlatÓ, that the interÂconnected global economy enabled by advances in Information and Communications TechnolÂogy and other factors that he terms ÒFlattenersÓ, does not only empowers the software writÂers and the computer geeks to collaborate on the work in the flat world, but also AL Qaeda and other terrorist networks. The playing field is not being levelled only in ways that draw in, and super empower a whole new group of innovators, but also a whole new group of angry, frustrated, and humiliated men and womenÓ. Organization for Economic Cooperation and DeÂvelopment (OECD, Paris: July 2003) reported, ÒThe world pattern for global prosperity has been predicated on near-frictionless transport and trade." Seaport is a crucial component of the world economy and global transportation infrastructure, Nevertheless generally there hasnÕt been a comprehensive governmental regulation and security oversight. The terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001 that collapsed the World Trade Centre and Pentagon in the United States, has significantly impacted multitude of sectors internationally. The tragic inciÂdent has brought radical change in the maritime industry. One of the major elements that arose in the response to that attack was the approach to security. This change led to change in the manner in which security is being conducted and practiced, due to the numbers securiÂty measures, rules as well as regulation to avoid such incident in the future. International Maritime Organization (IMO) and U.S have implemented several measures after the tragic event, for the purpose of heightening the security of maritime business. For instance, InterÂnational Ships and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, was ratified by International Maritime Organization in 2002, and called on every member states to apply the code by 2004. The Maritime Transportation Security Act 2002(MTSA) and the Security and Accountability for EveÂry port Act 2006(SAFE Port 2006) by United State was designed to improve national maritime security though, these two Act have international elements planned to strengthen security of the facilities by which Goods destined to United State are travelled. The main focuses were on the vulnerabilities of the ships and the port facilities, which could be exploited by the terÂrorist and other criminals. Though the current security measures have enhanced some aspects of security at Nigeria port, yet some of the vulnerabilities, which are crucial, still hang out. The current regime has made security at the port very rigorous, for instance strict measures regarding containerized cargo. Port security measures could be infiltrated by terrorist or illicÂit traffickers, if appropriates mechanism are not put in place to verify identities, credentials, and the intention of individual, ships or cargo arriving at the port. This thesis shall define reÂsearch problem and the objective, then the issues relating to port security threats and the vulnerabilities, including its economic impacts on the port. Also how port security measures have been applied in Port of Nigeria shall be demonstrated. Though, current security regime have enhance some part of the port security, nevertheless they have failed to tackle the imÂportant vulnerabilities which terrorist and other criminals are capable of exploiting. Despite the fact that there is strong physical security at the ports, as well as the strict inspection rules for the containerized cargo, the absence of mechanisms to verify the identities and creÂdentials of every individual who has access to the ports, secure non-containerized cargo, and prevent criminal from accessing and exploiting the port facilities, the whole port security measure can be undermined. 1.1 Statement of Problem All sections within Nigeria and international community have welcomed the breakthrough of offshore oil and gas in the Western part of Nigeria. Nigeriaians have is expectation that this breakthrough will bring significant economic benefit to Country. Nigeria Port being the main facility for receiving ships and transferring cargoes, the offshore oil and gas exploitation and development, has brought enormous responsibilities and challenges to the port Authorities and the users. The significant issues among, is how authority is going to manage the security, safety and environmental issues that will arise over the next decade. The challenge is that, offshore oil and gas extraction includes a complex net of ships, structures, installations and people, all interacting with each other. These activities raise concern to security, safety and environmental protection considerations at a high level of intensity, at this time that the offÂshore production is in full swing. Therefore there is the need to identify the related threats and vulnerability to be able to develop a comprehensive, but resilient security system to deal with the threats and vulnerabilities. 1.2 Objectives of the study The main objective of this thesis is to identify the threats and the vulnerabilities concerning Nigeria port in Nigeria, and finally recommend measure to overcome the identified threats and vulnerabilities. 1.3 Research Question The research has recognized, and seeks to answers the main question of Òhow to develop reÂsilient security system for Nigeria Port? This question came to mind after reading various concerns regarding the security of the maritime commerce. In trying to answer the main question, the following question also came to mind: (ii) has there been any security incident linked to Nigeria Port? (ii) If yes, how many time are those incidents linked to Nigeria Port? (ii) How do those incidents happen? (iii) Are there in place, security measures to prevent those incidents? (iv) Are those measures, effective to prevent potential security incidents? These prompted me to develop a questionnaire to search for the information regarding the existing security control measures, including vulnerabilities and threats associated with the security control measured, as well as operational activities within the port. 1.4 Delimitation The theoretical part covers analysis of various literature sources that describe the internaÂtional maritime regulations and requirements for shipping industries and ports as well as the weaknesses and the strengths of the regulation. Moreover, it shall describe the threats and the vulnerabilities regarding the shipping industries and the ports, including the competitive and economic impact on the ports. The theoretical framework shall be developed to describe the threat and vulnerabilities relating to the port and the measure to overcome the threat and vulnerabilities base on the literature review. The empirical part-case study will focus on the analysing the threats and vulnerabilities concerning Nigeria port. The case study will be restricted to only Nigeria Port. Other threats that can adversely impact the security system including the port operation shall be considered. For instance, threat from the supply chain.CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRDUCTION This research is on Crime control through auditing and accountability in the national drug agency Imo state. The term audit is derived from the latin verb audire, which means to hear the origin of audit allowed tenant former to work on their land owners themselves, did not become involved in the business of farming. The land owners relied upon overseer who listened to the account of stewardship given by the tenants. Oaring this period till date, and with reference to the companies and allied matters act of 2004, the word audit is described as: The independent examination of and expression of opinion on the financial statements of an enterprise why an appointed auditor I pursuance of that appointment and in compliance with any relent statutory. In order to form an opinion as to the accuracy, truth and fairness of such account. The business world prior to industrial revolution in the 19th century till present day, has witnessed a lot of changes and developments. In the early economic development, the mode of recording and analyzing of accounting dates was by manual means. Auditing during this time was orally because the business of writing was get to develop. The modernization of in the business world led to the areas where writing and recording analysis evolved with the use of some electro mechanicals. . Accountability on the other hand is the obligation to answer for a responsibility that has been concerned, (the 2006). During the era when accounting system evolved, the business transition which took placed to be recorded, analysis and based on the principles, methods and procedures laid down by the accounting profession. Also certain development which occurred, gave rise to the right to examine the books and to obtain all the information and explanation necessary for giving a report on the truth and correctness of the business sheet. In view of this auditing was redefined according to (CAMA 2004) as an exercise whose objective is to enable auditors express on opinion on whether the financial statement gives a true and fair view of the entities affairs at the period and of its profit and loss for the period than ended and have been properly prepared in accordance with greater emphasis placed on the information value of the business balance sheet and prospective investor becoming increasing conscious of the need for the rejection of error and fund was regarded as the province of the business management. These developments further gave rise to the owner of the business. Which in turn led to the emergence of the financial statement legislation and recognition of auditing. As required by the company's act, the audited is meant to provide a written report, expressing their opinion regarding the freeness and fairness of words, auditing both in the past and at present is fanned at enquiring that the stewardship account being centered to owners of business is a time representation of the event that took place. Also development in the business coupled with technological breakthrough led to the advent of electronic data processing business dates. This, in the world of business implies the computerization of accounting system which still demands that auditors should perform their role as opinionist. Based on this, the question that strike ones mind could effective auditing lead to proper accountability has it origin in stewardship accounting (especially in the state government system). The function which accountings serve s in the earliest times of our society is providing owners of wealth, the means of safe guarding it from embezzlement as noted by Smith (2007). 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The concept auditing and accountability has been relegated to the background in the National drug agency. In spite its importance the further of the National drug agency lies in its auditing and accounting. Auditors perform important function in those aspects of government that are crucial for promoting credibility, equity and appropriate behavior of government officials which reduces the important roles auditing and accountability plays some problem are still left unsolved and new one have been created by the audit activities itself hence problem like i. Misapplication of audit report towards management decision. ii. Poor allocation of owners resources and national drug agency administration. iii. Non segregation of functional duties iv. Financial impropriety in the National drug agency as a result of inefficient auditing and accounting. v. These and many more problems are faces by the Nigeria National drug agency and enterprises. 1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The general objective of the study is to evaluate the effect of auditing and accountability in the National drug agency specifically, it tends to determine the cause of poor allocation of owners resources and national drug agency administration. To determine the factors that result to non-segregation of functional duties to being to light the financial impropriety lines) in the National drug agency which is due to inefficient auditing and accounting system. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION For this study, it is pertinent to ask some question, such as i. What is the relationship between auditing, accountability in the National drug agency? ii. To what extent are significant effects between misapplications of audit report towards management decision? iii. What possible effect could poor allocation of owners resources cause towards national drug agency administration? iv. Is there any reason for non-segregation of functional duties? v. Is there any significant reason why financial improperly in the National drug agency should occur? 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The problem and objectives for which the study seeks to particular and specific terms the study is meant to achieve the following through. i. For the researcher: it will provide an extensive tool for proper management and administration of such institution or a state. ii. For student: it is an avenue for student to acquire secondary information iii. For government: it helps to inform both the present and future government of the need to audit and account properly for every transaction iv. To the public: when fully adopted it clearly states the concept of auditing and accountability to the public there by showing the need for it and it consequence. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study examined the effectiveness of auditing and accountability in the National drug agency, with special reference to the office of the auditor general of Imo state. 1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study is limited to Imo state National drug agency with particular reference to the office of the auditor-general of the state due to the following contractors. i. TIME: This is the first major problem encounter in the work and it is due a very short semester and the academic pressures emanating from lectures, assignment, project works, seminars etc. ii. FINANCE: This is the second major problem experienced during this work and it so, based on the allowing reasons. iii. SCARCITY OF FUND: High cost of transportation infringed on the efforts of the research in pursing of relented information. Increase in the cost of photo copywriting materials typing and binding internet browsing. iv. RESPONDENT ATTITUDE: Many of the respondents refused to fill and return the questionnaire given to them, some wrongly filled and some deliberately refuse to provide the researcher with certain information's which they termed Official secrets as it might constituted a i. Threat to their positions or that of the national drug agency. ii. Distance of the supervision iii. Due to the supervision in other business of his a gap is being created between him (supervision) and the student (researcher) but with commitment on the side of the supervision alongside the persistence and patience of the researcher, such gap will be eradicated. 1.8 DEFINITIONM OF TERMS Terms meaning auditing it is the independent examination of and expression of opinion on the financial statement of an enterprise by and appointed qualities auditor to presence of that appointment and incompliance with any relevant statutory obligation. (CAMA 2004). Accountability: This is the obligation to answer for a responsibility that has been concerned. Auditor: This is a person appointed to examine the accuracy of the books of an national drug agency in such a way as to express an opinion on the trueness and fairness of the books in relating to the national drug agency state of affair (Adeniyi 2010) Stewardship: This is an act of rendering account to oneÕs employer. (Uzor 200) Internal Audit: This is the constant appraised of the efficiency of management control system in an national drug agency by an internal audit executive who report directly to the management. (Adeniyi 2010) External Audit: This is an independent examination of financial statement being carried out by non-employees of the business enterprise. (Adeniyi 2010) National drug agency: These are national drug agencys not printed owned and operated but which are established and operated by the government.CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY This research is on crime control information flow in a restructured Nigeria national identification system: election and census fraud solution. The concept of identification has always been a part of mankind. Verifying the identity of a person, a body or an organization has become so important in todays world that its absence would only mean a world in chaos. Our world today is a technology and business driven world that can only continue to remain the way it is or get better if identification is given its due place. Identification has become so vast that it embraces every aspect of our lives, be it social or technological. While several nations are considering improving their National identification system by integrating recent identification technology into it, others that do not have a National identification system in place are debating on having one or not. National identification system has become the subject of public debate. To facilitate various activities of any National government, all citizens and organizations should be uniquely identified. Any governmental activities such as social security services, public administration, Medicare services, tax collection, fair National elections, transparent National census count and much more cannot be effectively facilitated in the absence of a good National identification system. A successful National identification scheme is greatly dependent on public trust and should be carefully and sensitively implemented with respect to the social and technological maturity of the nation in question. Technology has become more pervasive and affordable nowadays that most identification system is technology based. There are a lot of ongoing research and design that are geared towards personal identification. All these are supposedly to make identification more effective and secure. There is no such thing as a totally secure National identification system, nor can there be a system that is completely immune to the risk of taking in multiple or false identities. It is known that biometrics can be spoofed and registration data falsely represented. There can be problems at both human and technological level. In this thesis, we propose a new National identification structure for Nigeria to help address its identification problems in general, reduce elections and census count fraud to a minimum and be useful for the execution of policies in sectors of the economy. 1.1 Objectives Having a National identification system in place in any National government is one thing, but having an effective and approximately secure National identification system is another. This thesis work mainly aims at restructuring Nigeria's National identification system and proposing a data flow pattern in the restructured system to help tackle the problems of electoral fraud and manipulated census count figures. 1.2 Motivation I was deeply motivated into restructuring Nigeria's National Identification system after looking into the National identification system of several developed nations. During the first few months of my studies in Sweden, I became increasingly aware of how effective its National identification system was. This led to my looking into the national identification systems of other countries with a good national identification system. These national identification systems can easily account for the approximately correct number of citizens and legal immigrants in the countries in question, and the identification of any person was convenient and easy. Thus it occurred to me that if such a good identification system is put in place in Nigeria, it can help solve her political problems of electoral fraud and manipulated census count figures, and as well as address her civil problems. Nigeria being a country that has over 250 ethnic groups with varying languages and customs is also home to a variety of religions [1]. This diversity tends to be a disadvantage when it comes to issues like fair elections and transparent National census count. The diversity has also led to a chronic problem of ethnic politics which has in turn given birth to militancy. All these being the result of some ethnic or religious groups trying to be the dominant group in terms of numbers and political victors. These problems have in many cases resulted in the loss of lives and properties. A good identification system that can easily account for the total number of Nigerians at home and its legal immigrants will go a long way in addressing these political problems which has become the source of most of the civil problems in the country. This is because an effective National identification register can easily be used for check and balance whenever it is needed for a fair election, transparent census count and governmental administrations. 1.3 Problem Statement The political and civil situations discussed in preceding sections led to the following research question: How should Nigeria National identification system be designed to help fight her recurring problems of electoral fraud, manipulated census count figures, and the lot of her civil problems? 1.4 Thesis Outline This thesis is made up of seven chapters. Chapter one which is the present chapter covers the introduction, motivation, the problem statement and the objectives of the thesis. Chapter two informs the reader about the various government agencies that make up the Nigeria National identification system. Understanding national identification is relevant to this thesis work, hence chapter three reviews National identification. The understanding of identification technologies used in identification today is relevant to this thesis. Chapter four reviews the identification technologies relevant to this thesis. Chapter five is about the restructuring of the Nigeria National identification system. Chapter six illustrates how the restructured identification system should be used to tackle the problems stated in the previous sections of this thesis. Chapter seven will be discussing reliability, privacy issues and the cost of implementation of the system. Chapter eight concludes the thesis and suggests some further work. 1.5 Personal Opinion Although my supervisors may have gone through this thesis, they may disagree with some concepts in it. This thesis is therefore my own personal conceptions and opinion on how to tackle the political and civil problems that troubles my country. My conceptions and opinion were undoubtedly influenced by my experiences home and abroad and as such may differ from the way such kind of problems are approached in other geographical locations. The Nigeria National identification system is made up of several agencies with each agency having its own responsibilities. Notable among them are the agencies in the following sections.CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION This research is on Crime control in political violence and the electoral process in Nigeria an overview of the 2007 presidential election. The Nigerian authorities and the independent National electoral commission (INEC) must prevent a repeat of the political violence that characterized the 2007 and 2003 elections. The political environment is however very tense. In the run up to the elections, the country has seen an increase in violence. Several hundred people have been killed in politically motivated. Communal and sectarian violence across Nigeria in the past six months. In addition human rights defenders and journalist, who play a key role in monitoring NigeriaÕs upcoming election in April, are facing increasing intimidation and harassment. Yet the Nigerian authorities have failed to bring suspected perpetrators to justice, or to take effective measures to prevent further human rights abuses. 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY The significance of election as an instrument for regime change has been recognized in most parts of the world. itÕs importance in a democratic society has been acknowledged long in the history of man. In Nigeria, the act of government by democratic means is highly cherished by the populace. Election of courses can be basic tool of democratic development. However, over the years the desire, choice and task of building a stable democracy in Nigeria has remained a mirage and part of this has unfulfilled dream as peaceful change of government ostensibly, through the electoral process. It is a common pattern that elections in the third world countries were bedeviled by violence and malpractice(.s and for such reasons election conducts were not free and fair unlike the cases in advanced countries. Election seems to highlight the most traits in the characters of Nigeria, particularly those of them who are active particularly in the electoral process. This national problem stems from the facts that Nigeria fits Thomas Hobbes description of man in his state of nature is basically self seeking and self-centered. This determines the greed in the Nigerian man hence cultural a flat has become part of the socio-political economic organizations. All elections nationwide election so far conducted by Nigerians for Nigerians have virtually brought our country to the bank of civil way. This was true of the presidential election of 1979-1983, if we agreed that election is basic took of democratic development its application becomes over more vital in political transition such as we have in this countries since independence. Infact, nothing would have been more gratifying in those transition exercises than to see this country match into a republic under a government duly installed by the people of Nigeria through a democratic election such as development would not only be cherished for building a stable democratic society in the country. Election malpractices constitute a form of political corruption, electoral fraud is therefore politically destabilizing, economically wasteful and destructive to government development and improvement capacity. It destroys the legitimacy of government structure, heightens problems of national disintegration and upset ethnic balance for the individual listeners who take election as a means to exercise political power no matter how small it may be. Election thus are at the heart of the structure of the functioning of modern democratic state and accompanies by irregularities and discrepancies summarily known as malpractice. The Nigeria first, second and third republic blew the pipe of ethnic polities and political corruption. Events of the past here is seriously shaking the confidence of the Nigeria people in the method by which they choose their governing officials. It is very difficult to imagine how a country can function democratically if most of her citizens continue to believe that the electoral system is fraudulent. 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The issue of electoral malpractices has always been of serious concern to so many patriotic and well-meaning Nigerians because of the destabilizing effects it has on the national body polity. A Cursory look at the annuals of the history reveals that Nigerian elections have become so afflicted with this ailment that one is forced to albeit uneasily come to grapple with the fact that this country as an entity might not after all survive for long. With the knowledge of elections having a common pattern of violence and malpractices in the third world countries is easy to locate and situate the problem of democratic transition through popular elections within the context of the electoral malpractice. 1.3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY Given that all elections in Nigeria have always had a common pattern of being characterized by malpractice it becomes clear that the objective of this study is to conduct a survey of general native of electoral malpractice in the election so far had in this country showing how these malpractice have affected the Nigeria political system. The study aims amongst other thing to; 1. Document various types of electoral malpractices that have occurred during the first and second republican elections. 2. Try and find out why this problem continues to flourish in the Nigeria political process. 3. proffer solutions to the problem of electoral malpractice in order to move the country forward in the area of democratic political transitions. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Poverty rates relative to social spending in other words does a government spending more on social programmes have lower poverty rates than those that do not. CouldnÕt you try measure the relation between interest rate cut and price increases in the economy. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY Elections are watershed in the political development of any country to the extent that political stability of a country depends on the integrity development. The significance of this study lies in the ability to highlight constraints which electoral system and the political system in general as a matter of fact a study of the factors which made these elections rough will contributed to better understanding of the problems posed by malpractices in free and fair elections in the new nations. In regard, this, the study will go a long way to educate and, inculcate or teach Nigerian electorates on the ills of election malpractices, it is believed that this research will not only add its quota to already existing literatures on elections and electoral malpractices but will serve as a guide in planning and conducting subsequent elections in this country. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The scope in this research will deal mainly on electoral malpractices in Nigeria and its causes, the study also tries to determine the possible solution to the electoral malpractice problems. 1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY Limitations to this research are the lack of sufficient literature on the key theoretical concepts. Materials on electoral malpractice are not quite easy to source hence reliance on magazines, journals and similar papers etc. 1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS ELECTION: Is a process by which the populace selects their leaders by voting. It is a process through which the electorate chooses its representatives into government position. ELECTION MALPRACTICE: This refers to service of actions that are taken during election periods which bring about political corruption into the government. POLITICAL VIOLENCE: Is a contriving threat to any political system, it is also a criminal act which is irrational and self defeating since majority of the casualties of the riots are either dead or seriously injured. POLITICAL PARTY: A party is a group of person united by a common political interest or ideology and engages in power struggle for the purpose of controlling the machinery of government and public politics.
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