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EXTRACTION AND FORMULATION OF PERFUME FROM LEMON GRASS LEAVES
ABSTRACT
Perfume extraction refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw materials, using methods such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression or enfleurage. The extracts are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. Heat, chemical solvents, or exposure to oxygen in the extraction process denature the aromatic compounds, either changing their odour, character or rendering them odourless. In this work three methods, solvent extraction, hydro distillation and enfleurage methods were used to extract essential oil from lemongrass. Solvent extraction method yielded 2.08, enfluerage method yielded 1.96 and hydro distillation methods yielded 0.95 essential oil respectively. From the analysis solvent extraction gave the highest yield because of the less exposure air and heat and this conform the literature value. The extracted essential oil was formulated into perfume using a fixative and carrier solvent.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Perfume is a fragrant liquid made from an extract that has been distilled in alcohol and water.
Since the beginning of recorded history, humans have attempted to mask or enhance their own odor by using perfume, which emulates natures pleasant smells. Many natural and manmade materials have been used to make perfume to apply to the skin and clothing, to put in cleaners and cosmetics, or to scent the air. Because of differences in body chemistry, temperature, and body odors, no perfume will smell exactly the same on any two people.
Perfume comes from the Latin per meaning through and fume, or smoke. Many ancient perfumes were made by extracting natural oils from plants through pressing and steaming. The oil was then burned to scent the air. Today, most perfume is used to scent bar soaps. Some products are even perfumed with industrial odorants to mask unpleasant smells or to appear unscented.
While fragrant liquids used for the body are often considered perfume, true perfumes are defined as extracts or essences and contain a percentage of oil distilled in alcohol.
Techniques involved in perfume extraction from plants include; solvent extraction, distillation and effleurage method. These methods to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds that are obtained from the raw materials.
Important thing in relation to perfume making is that there are three key ingredients you will need to produce perfume:
1. Essential Oils these have been extracted from various plants organic or nonorganic and when combined give the smell of the perfume you are trying to produce.
2. Pure Grain Oil
3. Water
1.2 LEMONGRASS
Family: Poaceae Gramineae, Cymbopogon species
The genus has about 55 species, most of which are native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia. Two major types have considerable relevance for commercial use: East Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon flexuosus is native to India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand, whereas West Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus is assumed to originate in Malaysia. The plants grow in dense clumps up to 2 meters in diameter and have leaves up to 1 meter long. Further Cymbopogon martini Roxb. J.F. Watson var. martini, which is native to India and cultivated in Java isworth mentioning as it also grows in Bhutan and is extracted for palmarosa oil. Another species with commercial relevance is citronella grass Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt which also stems from India, but is today grown throughout the tropics.
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
The problem of perfume extraction process is the distortion of the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to heat, harsh solvents and also through the exposure to oxygen which will denature the aromatic compounds. These will either change their odor, character or render them odorless.
The problem of formulation of perfume involves knowing the proportion in which essential oil, and other materials to be mixed to avoid skin irritation and increase the intensity and longevity of the perfume.
Most imported perfumes are synthetic odorant which are not pure chemical substance but are mixture of organic compounds that are harmful when applied.
There are limited perfume plants, from which perfume can be made; this can lead to importation of perfume thereby causing the decline of foreign reserves and unemployment.
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
The main objective of this project is to extract and formulate perfume from Lemon grass CYMBOPOGON FLEXUOSUS.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This project focuses on the production of perfumes from natural/plant sources as against synthetic chemicals thereby will reduce any side effect resulting from synthetic chemicals.
The success of this work will stimulate the development of the perfume industry locally because of available, cheap raw materials.
More jobs will be created by those that will be engaged in planting/cultivating of the plant as well as establishing small scale extraction plants.
There will be reduction on the resources spent on importation of lemon grass fragrance by end users.
1.6 SCOPE OF THE WORK
This project work is on how perfumes are extracted and formulated from lemongrass. It further entails;
1. The synthetic and aromatic sources of perfumes.
2. The composition of perfumes and its concentration
3. The extraction methods and formulation process involved
4. The economic importance of lemongrass and the uses of lemongrass oil in perfume production process.
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| Settings | EXTRACTION AND FORMULATION OF PERFUME FROM LEMON GRASS LEAVES remove | Effect of particle size on oil yield using scent bean seed (ozaki) remove | COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COAL, FUEL OIL AND NATURAL GAS FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION remove | ANALYSIS OF BUSH PEAR AND ITS OIL remove | Analysis of vegetables oil before and after refining remove | THE PRODUCTION OF YAM FLOUR FROM YAM CHIPS remove |
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| Name | EXTRACTION AND FORMULATION OF PERFUME FROM LEMON GRASS LEAVES remove | Effect of particle size on oil yield using scent bean seed (ozaki) remove | COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COAL, FUEL OIL AND NATURAL GAS FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION remove | ANALYSIS OF BUSH PEAR AND ITS OIL remove | Analysis of vegetables oil before and after refining remove | THE PRODUCTION OF YAM FLOUR FROM YAM CHIPS remove |
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| Description | ABSTRACT Perfume extraction refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw materials, using methods such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression or enfleurage. The extracts are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. Heat, chemical solvents, or exposure to oxygen in the extraction process denature the aromatic compounds, either changing their odour, character or rendering them odourless. In this work three methods, solvent extraction, hydro distillation and enfleurage methods were used to extract essential oil from lemongrass. Solvent extraction method yielded 2.08, enfluerage method yielded 1.96 and hydro distillation methods yielded 0.95 essential oil respectively. From the analysis solvent extraction gave the highest yield because of the less exposure air and heat and this conform the literature value. The extracted essential oil was formulated into perfume using a fixative and carrier solvent. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Perfume is a fragrant liquid made from an extract that has been distilled in alcohol and water. Since the beginning of recorded history, humans have attempted to mask or enhance their own odor by using perfume, which emulates natures pleasant smells. Many natural and manmade materials have been used to make perfume to apply to the skin and clothing, to put in cleaners and cosmetics, or to scent the air. Because of differences in body chemistry, temperature, and body odors, no perfume will smell exactly the same on any two people. Perfume comes from the Latin per meaning through and fume, or smoke. Many ancient perfumes were made by extracting natural oils from plants through pressing and steaming. The oil was then burned to scent the air. Today, most perfume is used to scent bar soaps. Some products are even perfumed with industrial odorants to mask unpleasant smells or to appear unscented. While fragrant liquids used for the body are often considered perfume, true perfumes are defined as extracts or essences and contain a percentage of oil distilled in alcohol. Techniques involved in perfume extraction from plants include; solvent extraction, distillation and effleurage method. These methods to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds that are obtained from the raw materials. Important thing in relation to perfume making is that there are three key ingredients you will need to produce perfume: 1. Essential Oils these have been extracted from various plants organic or nonorganic and when combined give the smell of the perfume you are trying to produce. 2. Pure Grain Oil 3. Water 1.2 LEMONGRASS Family: Poaceae Gramineae, Cymbopogon species The genus has about 55 species, most of which are native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia. Two major types have considerable relevance for commercial use: East Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon flexuosus is native to India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand, whereas West Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus is assumed to originate in Malaysia. The plants grow in dense clumps up to 2 meters in diameter and have leaves up to 1 meter long. Further Cymbopogon martini Roxb. J.F. Watson var. martini, which is native to India and cultivated in Java isworth mentioning as it also grows in Bhutan and is extracted for palmarosa oil. Another species with commercial relevance is citronella grass Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt which also stems from India, but is today grown throughout the tropics. 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS The problem of perfume extraction process is the distortion of the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to heat, harsh solvents and also through the exposure to oxygen which will denature the aromatic compounds. These will either change their odor, character or render them odorless. The problem of formulation of perfume involves knowing the proportion in which essential oil, and other materials to be mixed to avoid skin irritation and increase the intensity and longevity of the perfume. Most imported perfumes are synthetic odorant which are not pure chemical substance but are mixture of organic compounds that are harmful when applied. There are limited perfume plants, from which perfume can be made; this can lead to importation of perfume thereby causing the decline of foreign reserves and unemployment. 1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT The main objective of this project is to extract and formulate perfume from Lemon grass CYMBOPOGON FLEXUOSUS. 1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This project focuses on the production of perfumes from natural/plant sources as against synthetic chemicals thereby will reduce any side effect resulting from synthetic chemicals. The success of this work will stimulate the development of the perfume industry locally because of available, cheap raw materials. More jobs will be created by those that will be engaged in planting/cultivating of the plant as well as establishing small scale extraction plants. There will be reduction on the resources spent on importation of lemon grass fragrance by end users. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE WORK This project work is on how perfumes are extracted and formulated from lemongrass. It further entails; 1. The synthetic and aromatic sources of perfumes. 2. The composition of perfumes and its concentration 3. The extraction methods and formulation process involved 4. The economic importance of lemongrass and the uses of lemongrass oil in perfume production process. | ABSTRACT This study is a comparative analysis of the use of coal, fuel oil and natural gas for cement production noting their physical and chemical properties, cost and availability, impact on the environment and human health. Out of the seven cement manufacturing industries in Nigeria, three industries use these fuels were selected for the study. The industries are NigerCem Ebonyi state, Dangote cement Benue state and UniCem Cross river state. Questionnaires were used to gather information on the three fuels. The likert 3 scale model was adopted, using 2.0 as the cut off mark. Based on the analysis of the study, it was observed out that amongst these three 3 fuels, fuel oil is presently expensive though available, while coal and natural gas are cheap but coal is not available due to the closure of Nigerias coal mine. In terms of environment and health, coal and fuel oil emit much harmful gases to the environment and cause more health problems to cement worker but natural gas emits less of these harmful gases to the environment and cause less health problems to workers. The study therefore shows that natural gas is the best fuel because it is cheap, readily available and creates fewer problems to the environment. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY Energy is commonly defined as the ability to do work or to produce heat. Normally heat could be derived by burning a fuel i.e. a substance that contains internal energy which upon burning generates heat. IEA, 2004. The energy system today is highly dependent on fossil fuel with coal, fuel oil and natural gas accounting for about 80 of world primary energy demand. Kul, 2001. Fuels are the major source of energy for industries and cement industry is not an exception. However, the energy source to be adopted will have to meet the varying needs of different countries and at the same time enhance the security of each against the energy crisis that have taken place in the past. The selection/ choice of fuel type depend on various factors such as environmental pollution, ease in processing, storage and handling, availability and cost of the fuel. Coal, fuel oil and natural gas are the most commonly used energy carrier in cement industries. The energy use for cement production is distributed as follows: 92.7 for pyroprocessing 5.4 for finishing grinding and 1.9 for raw grinding Choate, 2003. The choice of fuel use entails the level at which green house gases GHG are emitted, the cost of cement and the quality of the cement produced. This research work will help in selecting the best fuel and techniques to be use in order to attain a high quality product at a lower cost with lesser green house gas emission to the environment. 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The choice of fuel is attained by comparative analysis of coal, fuel oil and natural gas in cement production. In comparing these fuels, the following problem arises: Knowledge of the physio chemical properties of coal, fuel oil and natural gas. Knowledge of the green houses gases GHG emitted by each of these fuel, their level of emission and their effects on the environment and humans health esp. cement workers. Knowledge of the cost and availability of coal, fuel oil and natural gas. 1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY The aims of this research work is to; Study the physical and chemical properties of coal, fuel oil and natural gas. Gain knowledge on the green house gases GHG emitted, their effect on the environment and humans health and the level of emission from each fuel. Study coal, fuel oil and natural gas in relation to cost and availability. 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY With the growth in industrialization today, this study will offer numerous values both to the cement industry and staff, the environment and society at large. It will choose an economical and less hazardous fuel and techniques for cement production. Also, it will help in the selection of techniques /fuel that will reduce the emission of green house gases GHG from cement industries to the environment. This gases emitted causes acid rain, smog etc. which can cause cancer to human and destroys plant lives. In terms of infrastructural development, an economical fuel for production will lead to a reduction in the cost of cement, thereby encouraging the development of buildings and Government in development of roads, bridges, and other construction oriented projects. This study will also give students of chemical engineering and other related courses an insight of these fuels with their different environmental implications, properties and choice of fuel when combustion of fuel is required. 1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION This study would have covered all the Nigerian cement industries but due to time and cost of analysis, it is limited to three3 cement industries namely: Dangote Cement in Gboko Benue State, United Cement Company in Calabar Cross River State UniCem, and Nigerian Cement Company in Nkalagu Ebonyi State NigerCem of which each uses Fuel oil, natural gas and coal respectively as energy source. The intention of the study is to cover the effects of coal, fuel oil and natural gas in the production of cement with reference to cost, storage and handling, availability, product quality and environmental impact. |
ABSTRACT
The research project studies the analysis of pear and its oil. The mesocarp from edible African pear DacryodesEdulis were evaluated for their oil yield. The pulp from this pear were oven dried at 100oC105oC to a moisture content level of 29.The mesocarp was subjected to proximate analysis to determine the percentage of the moisture, ash, fat, crude fibre, crude protein and carbohydrate content which resulted to the values of 29, 2, 19.6, 25.5, 11.9, and 12 respectively. Then the dried sample was pulverized by using hammer mill and the oil was extracted by solvent extraction using nhexane. The oil extracted were analyzed for the chemical properties i.e. Acid value, saponification value, peroxide value, iodine value etc. the values obtained are respectively 8.41gm/KOH/gm, 185.1gm/KOH/gm, 2.8gm/KOH/gm 3.96gm/iodine/gm and Physical properties i.e. Refractive index, Ph value, specific gravity which the values obtained are 1.469brix, 5.7 and 0.92. and the The percentage oil yield content is 51.57. This physiochemical characteristic and fatty acid composition of this oil show that they have industrial potentials.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the major world, one major source of protein and vegetable oil is from oil seeds /fruits Williams M. A. 1996. Oil constitutes a well defined class of naturally occurring substance. It is greasy, being soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Oil is a liquid at room temperature. Commercially, oil as well as fats is sourced from certain plant groups mostly seeds and nuts and some parts of animal within which they occur in relatively large quantity in an easily available form McGrawHill, 1997. The existence of oil in certain plants has been known for century of years Ogbu 2005.Oil can be grouped into edible and nonedible oil depending on the amount of unsaponified matters and impurities contained therein. Edible oil extracted from African pear, bread fruits, cashew nut, peanut etc. are examples of vegetable oil which are naturally occurring esters of higher fatty acids and glycerol, and are predominantly triglycerides with traces of mono and diglycerides, sterples, antioxidants, vitamins, saturated and unsaturated free fatty acids and other minor constituents. They are widely distributed in nature and were first consumed as food. Later, oils were discovered to be used as renewable raw materials for variety of nonfood production. For instance; soaps, creams, disinfectants, paints, enamels, inks etc.
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The generic name Dacryodes was derived from the Greek word Dakruon meaning tear referring to resin droplets on the bank surface of its member while Edulis means edible emphasizing the importance of nutrients fruits in the plants cultivation .The plant belongs to the family Burseraceae whose members are characterized by an ovary of 2to 5 cells, prominent as inducts in the bark, wood, and intrasteminal disk Chunduff, 1984. The genus Dacryodes consist of about 10 species Verheji, 2002. However Rehn, 1984 indicated 80 species to encompass sub species of varieties, form and cultivars. Two varieties are recognized; Varparvicarpa and Varedulis whose conical fruit is smaller with the pulp. Varedulis exhibit verticulate or subverticulate branching while the branching is slender and opposite or bifurcate in varparvicarpa Okafor et.al 1983.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This project is aimed at the analysis of bush pear and its oil.The main objective of this study is to carry out proximate analysis and physiochemical properties of African pear oil extracted by solvent methods. This physiochemical properties determined are specific gravity, refractive index, ph value, boiling point, acid value, iodine value, peroxide value, and saponification value. To achieve the objectives of this project, it is important to:
a Select the best suited solvent for optimum yield.
b Characterize the extracted oil for compositions and properties.
c Test the suitability of the oil.
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This research work involves the analysis of African pear and its oil though the food crop African pear potential is rated one of the highest oil producing fruit crop yet it begs the question of its potential.
Furthermore, this project will answer the following questions;
i Solvent extraction by solvent method
ii What is the optimum yield of the particle size using n hexane
iii Is there significant difference in the characterization of the extracted oil as compared to theoretical value in terms of;
1 Chemical properties Acid value, iodine value, saponification value and peroxide value.
2 Physical properties specific gravity, density, viscosity, refractive index.
3 Chemical composition protein crude, fibre, carbohydrate and moisture.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE/ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
Characterizing the potentials of African pear/African pear oil for many purposes has several implications. Communities in the West African countries are significantly dependent on financial gain from agrarian enterprise.
It is hope that from the project, optimum extraction parameters which are quality of the oil would be established, the result would add to the data bank that could help potential industrialist who intends to go into vegetable table oil production from African pear. A crop that experiences a post harvest loss in excess of 40 in areas where malnutrition is prevalent is a problem for potentials to reclaim the lost percentage of either food or other purposes is advantageous for producers and consumers alike.
1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
In this project work, we intend to analyze and extract completely African pear and its oil. Many research work has been done in giving a detailed composition found in African pear. But this research account on the optimum route to:
i Extraction of vegetable oil from bush pear.
ii Separation of pure oil from the solvent.
iii Characterization of the African pear.
| ABSTRACT The project dealt on the production of yam flour from yam chips. The yams were peeled and washed, 100grams samples coded sample A to G were subjected to two different drying conditions. Some were dried using the sun drying method while the others were dried through oven drying method kept at constant temperature of 500C, sodium bicarbonate was added to some of the samples, all these were done to obtain a flour with the best colour and texture quality. From the results obtained, it was observed that sample B yam boiled with sodium bicarbonate and dried with oven gave the best result and quality when tested with hot water, this was as a result of the drying condition used, the constant temperature maintained and the presence of the sodium bicarbonate used which helped in achieving the result. Generally, the samples dried through the oven drying method at 500C gave better colour and result of the yam flour when tested with hot water more than other samples dried by sun drying and this was due to the stability in temperature in the oven drying method used. CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Of The Study Yam dioscorea spp. is a multispecies crop that originated principally from Africa and Asia before spreading to other parts of the world Hahn et al.,1987. It belongs to the family of dioscoreae within the genus dioscorea and serves as a staple crop in west Africa.Asiedu et al., 1992. There are many cultivars of yam, though only six are important as staple foods in the tropics. the economically important species grown are Dioscorea rotundatawhite yam,D.alata yellow yam,D.bulbifera aerial yam, D.esculenta Chinese yam and D.dumenterum trifoliate yam. Yam tubers which is the most important part of the plants can be stored longer than other root and tuber crops. This ensures food security even in times of general scarcity. Yam is the third most important tropical root and tuber crop after cassava and sweet potato fu et al., 2005. West Africa is the leading producer of yam and grows over 90 of the worldwide production 40 tonnes fresh tuber/year followed by the west Indians where Jamaica is the leading producer FAOSTAT,2004. Nigeria is the worlds largest producer of yams followed by Ghana, ivorycoast and togo FAO,2003. Both fresh tubers and yam flour are now exported from Ghana and Nigeria to developed countries such as united kingdom and united states of America. These are mostly patronized by emigrants from growing regions according to the Nigerian export promotion council NEPC Nigeria realized N56 billion in 2007. Sustainable production and utilization of yam are important steps in enhancing food security and alleviatind poverty particularly in west Africa where it is estimated to provide more than 200 dietary calories each day for over 60 million people Nweke et al.,1991., FAO 2002. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS The principal problem in yam production that has been identified is the high cost of seed yam, high labour requirement, diseases, pest as well as high post harvest lossesOrkwor 1998.another constraint to yam production is the limited processing technology. About 30 of harvested yam tubers are lost to waste. The bulkiness of fresh transport and low margins for both farmers and traders are thus a matter of serious concern in the urban market Cooke et al.,1988. During the processing of yam through sundrying method,the problem encountered is the loss due to potential contamination of the product variability in drying time, rain damage and so on. Ohweever, D.alata fresh texture is usually not firm as the D.rotundata white yam and less suitable than other species for the preparation of the most popular food product from yam in the west Africa regionWirekomanu et al.,2011. 1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 1.3.0 MOTIVATION The growing need for the variety of food in Nigeria has become a primary concern for the urban and rural households in Nigeria. In recent times, the concern has raised much researchers interest to do related studies. As reported in many different studies around the world, food security is a common problem. 1.3.1 OBJECTIVES The present study aims at carryout an experiment on fresh yams, optimize the drying parameters and investigate the effect of drying conditions on the quality of the yam. To result to this, the present study which will address particular issues food drying could stimulate producers, farmers, agriculturists, educational practitioners on the phenomenon of drying to enhance the quality of yams to solve past harvest losses. 1.4 SCOPE OE THE WORK To carryout drying experiment on fresh yams and optimize the drying parameters. To determine the effect of drying on the quality properties Process the yam samples into chips and carryout approximate analysis of the fresh and dried samples. Production of flour from the yam chips Compare flour samples in terms of colour and texture evaluation. | ||
| Content | Abstract This project was done to extract and characterize bean oil according to their particle sizes. The experiment was carried out using scent bean (i.e.‘Ozaki’,‘Ijilizi’or‘Azamu’) as a sample. The oils were extracted by solvent extraction/leaching extraction using n-hexane. Proximate analysis was carried out to obtain percentage moisture content, ash content, total oil content, protein content and carbohydrate content of the extracted oils. From observation, it was noticed that as the diameter of the sieve decreased, the quantity of oil obtained increased. | Abstract
This research work was carried out to determine the physicochemical analysis of the following vegetable oil (Groundnut oil, Palm kernel oil and Shea butter) were purchased from Abuja main market and the local method was used to prepare the oil in this study. All of the vegetable oil conformed physicochemical to the standards established by the Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS), African Regional Organization of Standardization (ARSO). The highest FA (fatty acid) is from palm acid in all of the three oils and range from a maximum of 3.0%, while the principal saponification value ranges from187-196 maximum at low levels. In all, the physicochemical analyses of the groundnut, palm kernel and Shea butter oils extracted locally and later refined, showed some significant differences. | ||||
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