| Description | ABSTRACT
This research is on Formulation and sensory evaluation of herb tea from moringa oleifera, hibiscus sabdariffa and cymbopogon citratus. The sensory appeal of tea, like all food products, is an important consideration in new product development. Tea in general and herb tea in particular, are gaining increasing consumer attention due to a growing awareness of health benefits derived from their consumption. Even though several underutilized plants exist with potential for processing into herb tea, research in product development of herb teas is limited. The objectives of the study were (1) to conduct chemical analyses on three herbs – Cymbopogon citratus leaves, Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces and Moringa oleifera leaves – in order to assess their potential for food product development; (2) to conduct acceptance tests on herb tea prepared from formulations of the herbs; and (3) to generate descriptive vocabulary on the sensory properties of herb tea. The herbs were unblanched and solar-dried. Standard methods were used to measure proximate parameters, water soluble extractives (WSE), light petroleum extractives (LPE), pH, total polyphenolics content (TPC) and minerals (Ca, Fe, Cu and Zn). Fifty (50) untrained panelists conducted acceptance tests on infusions from nine formulations and one control, and a nine-member trained panel conducted descriptive tests on infusions from three selected blends. Results of chemical analysis revealed that Moringa, Roselle and Lemon grass had, respectively, TPC of 35.70 mg/g, 27.81 mg/g and 15.37 mg/g; WSE of 7.44%, 12.38% and 4.07%; LPE of 3.48%, 2.71% and 4.1%; pH of 5.47, 2.73 and 4.53.
Mineral analyses revealed that Moringa, Roselle and Lemon grass had, respectively, Ca of 412.5 mg/100g, 294 mg/100g and Fe of 12.93 mg/100g; 24.26 mg/100g and 11.58 mg/100g. A total of seventeen (17) descriptors were generated, defined and referenced for herb tea comprising six (6) appearance, three (3) aroma, one (1) flavour, five (5) taste and two (2) mouthfeel descriptors. Herb tea brewed from product 532 (50% Moringa, 30% Roselle and 20% Lemon grass) was the most preferred in colour, flavour, astringency and overall sensory properties while the control (100% Moringa) brewed the least preferred herb tea in most of the sensory attributes. Product 532 was predominantly reddish in colour (12.56) while the control was yellowish (11.93). Product 532 had high mean scores for Turbidity (12.67), Herbal aroma (11.41), Citrus aroma (11.30), Sour taste (12.15) and Astringency (11.41) while the control had significantly low scores for most of these attributes (≤ 2.33). Herb tea from blend of Moringa, Roselle and Lemon grass was more appealing than herb tea from only Moringa. | ABSTRACT
This research is on comparative studies of the sugar and mineral contents of industrially processed fruit juices sold in Enugu state, Nigeria with freshly prepared fruit juices. The sugar and mineral levels of industrially processed fruit juices (mainly 100% and 50% fruit juices) sold to consumers in Enugu state, Nigeria were determined and compared with that of freshly prepared fruit juices. The liquid nature as well as the versatility of juice has increased the ease with which fruit juices can be altered with sugar, contaminants, water or inferior juices by unethical suppliers. This research was performed to address the potential concern that industrially processed fruit juices (especially those with ?100% natural? and ?no sugar added? label) may differ in quality with respect to sugar and mineral contents (including heavy metal contents which is deleterious to quality) from extracted juice of fresh fruit, as well as to address in part the ongoing public health concerns of excessive sugar consumption, micronutrient malnutrition and heavy metal contamination. The fruit juices tested included apple, orange, pineapple and red grape juices. All industrially processed fruit juices and fresh fruits used were purchased in Enugu state, Nigeria. The fresh fruits were juiced and all samples including industrially processed and the freshly prepared fruit juices were tested for total soluble solid (TSS) content, fructose, glucose, sucrose, Na, K, Mg, Ca, P, Fe and heavy metals contents such as Cu, Zn, As and Pb. Findings from the analysis of the TSS content of fruit juice samples demonstrated no significant (p > 0.05) difference between the industrially processed and freshly prepared fruit juices; however, difference in sugar and mineral levels between industrially processed and freshly extracted fruit juices was significant (p < 0.05). Industrially processed fruit juices contained higher glucose, sucrose, Na, Ca, P, Cu and Zn contents, and lower fructose, K and Mg contents when compared to freshly prepared fruit juices. There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference in iron (Fe) and arsenic (As) contents of industrially processed fruit juices when compared with the freshly extracted juices. Lead (Pb) was not detected in any of the samples. This study demonstrated no quality issues of concern in relation to the products because all the parameters considered in the study were within the standard acceptable range for fruit juices and nectar. | ABSTRACT
This research is on Hepatocurative and antioxidant effect of ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions of detarium microcarpum stem bark in ccl4 induced liver damage in wistar rats. The stem bark of Detarium microcarpum (Guill and Perr.) is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of liver disease in middle belt region of Nigeria. To substantiate this folkloric claim, ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions of Detarium microcarpum stem bark was investigated for its hepatocurative and antioxidant effect in CCl4 induced liver damage in rats. Aqueous extraction was carried out on Detarium microcarpum stem bark and the crude extract was further fractionated sequentially using ethyl-acetate and n-butanol solvents. In the in-vitro studies, phytochemical screening of the crude extract showed the presence of phenolic, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, alkaloids and glycosides while total phenolic content assay, total flavonoid content assay, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Reducing power and H2O2 free radical scavenging activities were carried out on ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions. The total phenol content for n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions were 2.97±0.31 and 11.54±0.20 mg/g Gallic acid equivalents while total flavonoid content were 234.42±0.71 and 45.76±2.59 mg/g quercetin equivalents. Ethyl acetate fraction showed the highest DPPH free radical scavenging activity with 65.31% inhibition while n-butanol showed the highest reducing power and H2O2 free radical scavenging activities with 65.31% and 52.55% which informed the choice of n-butanol fraction for further studies. In the in-vivo studies, the LD50 of n-butanol fraction of Detarium microcarpum stem bark was >5000 mg/kg body weight of rats. CCl4 (1ml/kg body weight) as a 1:1(v/v) solution in olive oil was used to induce liver damage followed by subsequent treatment with n-butanol fraction of Detarium microcarpum stem bark at three different doses (100, 150 and 200 mg/kg bw/day) while silymarin (100 mg/kg bw/day) was used as standard drug for 28 days. The liver weight was significantly (p<0.05) increased in the negative control group when compared with the CCl4 treated groups. There was significant
(p<0.05) reduction in the serum activities of alanine aminotransaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), direct and indirect bilirubin for CCl4 treated groups compared to the negative control group. Total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB) in the negative control group were reduced but not significantly (p>0.05) compared to the CCl4 treated groups. In endogenous antioxidant activities, there was significant (p<0.05) reduction of malondialdehyde (MDA) in CCl4 treated groups compared to the negative control group. A significant (p<0.05) increase was also observed in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities of CCl4 treated groups compared to the negative control group. These results may suggest hepatocurative and antioxidant effects of Detarium microcarpum stem bark in CCl4 induced liver damaged animals.
| ABSTRACT
This project is on assessment of dietary pattern and nutritional status of people living with hiv/aids attending some voluntary and counselling test (vct) units in kaduna metropolis. This study assessed the dietary pattern and nutritional status of People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) attending some voluntary and counseling test units in Kaduna metropolis.The studied subjects consisted of 74 adult patients infected with HIV between the ages of 18 and 60 years and 74 age-and-sexed-matched apparently healthy volunteers who were HIV negative as control group.A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the subjects. Dietary diversity of the subjectsand control were assessed using food frequency questionnaire. Blood serum total protein, total cholesterol, HDL and LDL cholesterol were determined spectrophotometrically while serum zinc and iron were measured using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Result obtained shows that majority of patients (39.19%) were between 26 and 33years. A sizeable percentages of patients (33.78%) and control (52.7%) were overweight (BMI ≥ 25.00kg/m2), while some patients (25.68%) and control (37.93%) were under weight (BMI < 18.49kg/m2). A significantly (P<0.05) higher total protein was observed in patients compared to the control while significantly (P<0.05) lower levels of LDL-cholesterol and CD4 counts were recorded in HIV patients compared to the control. There was also significantly (P<0.05) lower levels of zinc and iron in HIV patients compared to the control. Good dietary diversity was observed in the HIV patients as their dietary pattern showed regular intake of energy and other food groups which may explain why more patients had good BMI contrary to the usually observed incidence of weight loss and wasting among PLWHIV. They also showed normal level of total cholesterol and HDL which implies low risk of atherosclerosis with just little proportion at risk as a result of high LDL levels. Normal zinc levels in the PLWHIV may explain the normal weight observed contrary to what is observed in HIV patients with frequent diarrhea as zinc is effective in the reduction of the incidence, severity and duration of diarrhea. The PLWHIV should be encouraged to maintain dietary diversification with adequate consumption of four or all the food groups. Also, attention should be given to other causes of death in PLWHA such as cardiovascular diseases and overweight. | | ABSTRACT
This research is on Effects of quail (coturnix japonica) egg diet on blood sugar and lipid profile levels of alloxan induced diabetic albino rats. Egg consumption is a popular choice for good nutrients, but by far the egg most often consumed by human is the chicken egg, typically unfertilized. Quail eggs help treat tuberculosis, asthma, and diabetes and it can also help prevent kidney, liver, or gallbladder stones. Thus, this study is aimed at determining quail egg?s dietary effect on the blood sugar and lipid profile of alloxan induced diabetic rats. The quail egg sample was analyzed for its various nutritional compositions using the Association of Official Analytic Chemists (AOAC) methods. Sixty (60) processed quail eggs and shells, using the cooked-dry method, were administered to thirty six (36) alloxan induced diabetic rats which were grouped into nine (9) different groups of four (4) rats each, at varied doses per group for a duration of seven (7), fourteen (14) and twenty one (21) days. Their lipid profiles were determined using standard methods while histological analyses were carried out using the standard paraffin process method (tissue processing method). Results showed that quail eggs are good sources of protein, lipids and moisture (15.10¤0.16%, 31.39¤0.26%and 50.18¤0.25% respectively). However, the ash and carbohydrate contents are minimal (1.13¤0.09% and 0.65¤0.05% respectively). Elemental analysis indica tes that the shell is a rich source of Calcium, 3000.00mg/100g; Zinc, 38.15mg/100g; Iron, 175.40mg/100g; Phosphorous, 120.00mg/100g and Magnesium, 78.00mg/100g. Rats treated with two (2) Raw Quail eggs (2RE) showed the best performance in terms of lowering the blood glucose level and weight gain when compared with the insulin treated rats. Statistical analysis of the blood glucose at intervals (day 7, day 14 and day 21), indicates that for a mid-term and long-term treatment of diabetes, quail eggs can be of effective use. Quail egg treatment does not also affect the serum lipid profile of diabetic rats but can however lower or reduce the level of any risk of diabetic dyslipidemia. It is concluded that intake of diets rich in magnesium and leucine, such as a quail egg diet provides, either alone or as part of a therapeutic regimen, can have beneficial effect in the prevention and management of type 1 diabetes. |
| Content | CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This research is on Formulation and sensory evaluation of herb tea from moringa oleifera, hibiscus sabdariffa and cymbopogon citratus. The drinking of tea begun in China centuries ago, and has over the years become an inseparable part of most cultures worldwide. Tea is currently the most widely consumed beverage in the world (Schmidt et al., 2005) and therefore ranks as an important world food product. About one tenth of the world production volume of tea is supplied by Kenya which is Africa’s largest producer of tea (International Tea Committee, 1998).
Tea is generally consumed for its attractive aroma and taste as well as the unique place it holds in the culture of many societies. In recent times, there is renewed interest in tea because of growing consumer awareness of health benefits derived from tea consumption (McKay and Blumberg, 2002). Tea therefore belongs to a rapidly expanding market of ‘wellness beverages’ (Byun and Han, 2004).
By definition, tea is an infusion of the leaves or other parts of the evergreen tea plant (Camellia sp). Teas have been traditionally categorized into green, oolong and black teas according to the processing conditions employed during manufacturing (Kirk and Sawyer (1997). In recent times, however, a fourth category, called herb teas, is gaining increasing popularity among consumers. Unlike traditional teas, herb teas are prepared from plants other than Camellia (Bender, 2003)
Tea preparation follows a simple procedure. Hot water (70 °C to 100 °C) is poured over the plant part(s) in a container and allowed to steep for a few minutes (usually 1 – 5 min) after which the plant material, usually contained in a bag, is removed from the container. The temperature of the water used and the duration of steeping affect the ‘strength’ of the tea. Tea is drunk hot, warm or iced. In some cases milk and/or a sweetener such as honey or sucrose may be added before drinking (Hakim et al., 2000).
According to Abbey and Timpo (1990), indigenous herbs are in general heavily underexploited in spite of their huge dietary potential. It is therefore imperative to explore the potential of indigenous plant materials in the development of new herb teas. Three examples of indigenous plants discussed in this thesis are Moringa oleifera (Moringa), Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle) and Cymbopogon citratus (Lemon grass).
Moringa is an easily propagated plant which thrives well in harsh environmental conditions. It is increasingly gaining global attention due to an excellent profile of nutrients and antioxidants. Moringa leaf is rich in minerals, amino acids, vitamins and -carotene. It also contains a rare combination of health-promoting antioxidants: zeatin, quercetin, sitosterol, caffeoylquinic acid and kaempferol (Anwar et al., 2007). Currently, there is growing interest in the use of Moringa leaf as an ingredient in the preparation of herb tea. According to unpublished reports, however, herb tea made solely from Moringa is poor in sensory appeal (Source: personal communication). This may probably be due to the absence of distinctive flavour properties. It may therefore be necessary to combine Moringa with other herbs in developing herb teas as a way of improving its sensory appeal. This is crucial because consumers are generally unwilling to buy food with poor sensory appeal, irrespective of health or nutritional benefits (de Cock et al., 2005).
Roselle is an aromatic, astringent herb with multiple food uses including the preparation of beverages. Roselle is known to impart a characteristic reddish colour and sour taste which many consider appealing in beverages (Blench, 1997).
Lemon grass has been a preferred component of many cuisines for centuries because of its excellent aromatic properties. Infusion of lemon grass leaf gives an aromatic drink with a characteristic lemon flavour (Figueirinha et al., 2008).
1.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the study is to explore alternative uses for Moringa oleifera, Hibiscus sabdariffa and Cymbopogon citratus by blending the three herbs to produce a herb tea with acceptable sensory properties.
1.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The specific objectives of the study are:
- To determine chemical composition of dried Moringa oleifera leaves, Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces and Cymbopogon citratus leaves;
- To perform acceptance tests on infusions prepared from blends of the three herbs; and
- To generate descriptive vocabulary that would characterize the sensory properties of herb tea.
1.3 RESEARCH JUSTIFICATION
Developing new herb tea products from indigenous plants will provide novel uses for underutilized plants. It will further provide consumers with new alternatives to traditional teas. Moreover the research will bring to light the potential of the underutilized plants for food product development. The research will broaden understanding of the sensory characteristics and preferences of herb teas in particular and beverages in general. It will further advance research in herb tea product development. | CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This research is on comparative studies of the sugar and mineral contents of industrially processed fruit juices sold in Enugu state, Nigeria with freshly prepared fruit juices.
Fruit juices are becoming important part of modern diet in many communities. Their consumption is popular in Nigeria because of their health and invigorating benefits (Alaka et al., 2003; Ndife et al., 2013). They act as nutritious beverages and play significant roles in healthy diets because they offer good taste and varieties of nutrients found naturally in fruits (O’Neil and Nicklas, 2008; Hossain et al., 2012). In Nigeria, different kinds of seasonal fruits are available including apple, orange, pineapple, and grape which provide an abundance of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and fibers, all of which are essential for human health (Jasmine, 2012). Fruit juice intake is a convenient way by which people receive the benefits of various fruits when whole fruit is not readily available or desired (Nitu et al., 2010). Properly extracted juices are very similar to the fruit; they contain most substances which are found in the original ripe and sound fruit from which the juice is made. Fruit juices are always 100% fruit products and should not be confused with soft drinks or other refreshing drinks (Landon, 2007). They are available either in their freshly prepared form or industrially processed form. In either case, it is expected to be free from contaminants and contain most substances which are found in the original ripe and sound fruit from which the juice is extracted, without added sugar or preservative (Hassan et al., 2014). It should be void of environmental pollutants such as toxic metals which impacts negatively on quality and are deleterious to health. Fruit juices contain water and varying concentrations of carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, glucose and sorbitol (Oranusi et al., 2012). They are also rich in phytochemicals, minerals and vitamins which are responsible for the several health benefits associated with their consumption, including reduction in the risk of a variety of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer (Cashwell, 2009). However, the beneficial health effects of fruit juices depends on the amount consumed in a daily diet, type of fruit and the content of biologically active compounds. In recent times, the quality of fruit juices is diminished with increasing concentration of toxic compounds including added sugar, heavy metals and other contaminants. Excessive sugar consumption from fruit juice has been associated with the development of obesity, type II diabetes and dental caries (Cashwell, 2009). The minerals contained in fruit juices including sodium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium and iron are essential for good health if present in adequate concentrations (Ofori et al., 2013) and harmful when in excess or deficient, hence the need for their proper representation.
Beverages
Beverages are liquids specifically prepared for human consumption, usually excluding water. This may include tea, coffee, liquor, beer, milk, juice or soft drinks. Despite the fact that most beverages including juice, soft drinks and carbonated drinks have some form of water in them, water itself is often not classified as a beverage. Beverages can be categorised as alcoholic and non alcoholic based on the percentage ethanol present. Non alcoholic beverages can further be classified into sweetened beverages and fruit/vegetable juices. A sweetened beverage is any beverage to which a caloric sweetener has been added, including carbonated or non-carbonated soft drinks, fruit punch, fruit drinks, lemonade, sweetened powder drinks, or any other artificially sweetened beverages. Fruit juices on the other hand are not sweetened drinks and should not be categorized as such. They are composed exclusively of an aqueous liquid or liquids extracted from one or more fruits with no added caloric sweeteners (Landon, 2007).
Fruit juice
A fruit juice is defined as the clear or uniformly cloudy unfermented liquid recovered from sound fruits by pressing and other mechanical means (Nnam and Njoku, 2005). It is a drink consisting of 100% pure fruit juice, which typically contains no preservatives or other added ingredients. It is a fruit product, which could be easily consumed by infants, children and adults to meet their nutrient needs particularly that of micronutrients (Nzeagwu and Onimawo, 2010).
Freshly squeezed Juice
Freshly squeezed juices are produced by squeezing the juice from the fruit of choice, which is then immediately consumed or packaged and transported to the retailer as the case may be, usually within 24 hours. These juices often do not undergo any form of pasteurization and therefore typically have a very short shelf life usually 2-3 days (Cashwell, 2009).
Concentrate
This is obtained by the removal of water from fruit juice for the purpose of achieving reduction in weight and volume for easier transportation. At the time of usage, water is added back to the concentrate to reconstitute 100% fruit juice. Juices made from concentrates are available and similar in nutrient to the freshly squeezed juice. During production, fruit juices from concentrate are typically heat-treated, to ensure that any unwanted spoilage pathogens, including bacteria or moulds, are destroyed (Cashwell, 2009).
Fruit drinks (Juice drinks)
Fruit drinks are products which contain anything less than 100% pure fruit juice (Landon, 2007; Cashwell, 2009). The level of fruit juice contained in these drinks can be found in the ingredients panel, usually on the back of the pack. There are a vast range of products with differing percentages of fruit juice. These drinks may include those that are purchased in a ready-to-drink format, or those that require dilution prior to consumption which may include products made with sugar, as well as low sugar options made with sweeteners.
Nectars
Fruit juice nectars are defined as the fermentable but unfermented product obtained by the addition of water and sugar to fruit juice or concentrated fruit juice. It consists of less than 100%, but more than 20% fruit juice (Cashwell, 2009). The term nectar is one that is used for a diluted juice to denote a beverage that contains fruit juice and water, and which may contain sweeteners.
Smoothies
Fruit smoothies are typically combinations of homogenized/crushed fruit and juice (Landon, 2007). Most single servings of commercially available fruit smoothies (typically 250 ml) contain at least one 80 g portion of whole fruit, as well as one portion of fruit juice (150 ml).
‘Intrinsic’ and ‘Added’ Sugars
Naturally occurring (intrinsic) sugars refers to sugars that are an integral part of whole fruit, vegetable, and milk products (Johnson et al., 2009) while added sugars are defined as sugars (mainly monosaccharides and disaccharides) and syrups added to foods and beverages by manufacturer, cook or consumer during processing or preparation, including sugars and syrups added at the table. They are also referred to as free sugars (Johnson et al., 2009).
Total Soluble Solids (TSS)
They are defined as the sum of the solids which are dissolved within a substance and it is usually expressed in degree Brix (Maireva et al., 2013). Degree brix is the mass of soluble solids (mainly sugars) contained in 100 g of solution. Sugar and fruit acids are the main contributors to the total soluble solid contents of fruit juices; however, pectins, glycosidic materials and the salts of metals when present also register a small but insignificant influence on the TSS content.
Fruit juice is an unfermented but fermentable liquid or juice intended for direct consumption, obtained from the edible portion of sound, appropriately mature and fresh fruit by mechanical extraction process and preserved exclusively by chemical and physical means (Oranusi et al., 2012). Fruit juice is a fruit product, which could be easily consumed by infants, children and adults to meet their nutrient needs, particularly that of micronutrients (Nnam and Njoku, 2005; Nzeagwu and Onimawo, 2010). It can be freshly squeezed or made from concentrate.
Freshly squeezed juices are produced by ‘squeezing’ the juice from the fruit of choice, which is then packaged and transported to the retailer usually within 24 hrs. These juices often do not undergo any form of pasteurization and therefore typically have a very short shelf life usually 2-3 days. However, they may undergo high-pressure treatment and/or modified-atmosphere packaging to increase their shelf life. The term “F resh Juice” in most cases applies to those juices prepared in front of the consumer. If the juice is pasteurized, or contains juice concentrates or “stored” juices, then it is not fresh juice (Cashwe ll, 2009).
A reconstituted fruit juice is the product obtained by replacing the water extracted from the juice during concentration, and by restoring the flavours. They are commonly referred to as juice ‘from concentrate’. They are common to commercial juices where there is need to increase shelf life as well as the ease of transportaion. The juice is extracted from the fruit the same way as done for fresh juices after which the extracted fruit juice is concentrated by evaporating the water naturally present in it. This concentrate is properly preserved often by freezing before being transported to its destination, where water is added back to reconstitute the juice to 100% fruit juice or alternatively, the concentrate can be used as an ingredient in a cordial drink. After reconstitution, fruit juices from concentrate are typically pasteurized, to ensure that any unwanted spoilage pathogens, including bacteria or moulds, are destroyed. The shelf life of the product is determined by the temperature of pasteurization. Long-life products are those products pasteurized at a temperature of approximately 90°C for a short time usually10-20 seconds. They have a shelf life of approximately 6-9 months. Short-life products are pasteurized at a lower temperature (70-75°C) for 10-20 seconds and product s typically have a shelf life of 2-6 weeks (Cashwell, 2009).
- Common Fruits and Fruit Juices
Fruits have been a part of human diet over the years. They are also considered as food supplements and are recommended internationally as essential to healthy nutrition, because they contain high quantity and quality of water, sugars, vitamins and minerals (Ndife et al., 2013). Fruit consumption has been reported to contribute to the prevention of degenerative processes, particularly lowering the incidence and mortality rate of cancer and cardio-cerebrovascular diseases (Krejpcio et al., 2005). They contain phytochemicals which act against oxidative reactions in the human body (Vanamala et al., 2006; Okwu and Emenike, 2006). Fruits and vegetables are very perishable in nature; therefore high post harvest losses resulting from lack of cold storage facilities on the farms, improper handling and inadequate processing facilities occur immediately after harvest, during distribution and marketing (Alaka et al., 2003; Landon, 2007; Adubofuor et al., 2010; Ndife et al., 2013), hence the need to process them into fruit juices.
1.2.3.1 Apple Juice
Apple (Malus domestica) features oval or pear shaped (Figure 1). Its outer peel comes in different hues and colours depending upon the cultivar type. Internally, its crispy, juicy pulp is off-white to cream in colour, and has a mix of mild sweet and tart flavour.
Apples (Malus domestica) are one of the healthiest foods a person can eat. Studies suggest that its components are essential for optimal growth, development, and overall wellness. They are high in fiber, low in calories, have only a trace of sodium, and no fat or cholesterol. Apples have been shown to have potent antioxidant activity that can greatly inhibit the growth of liver cancer and colon cancer cells (Eberhardt et al., 2000). They are high in polyphenols and notable for their impressive list of phytonutrients and antioxidants including flavonoids. Some of the important flavonoids in apples are quercetin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2 which help protect the body from deleterious effects of free radicals (Boyer and Liu, 2004). Apple contains good quantities of vitamin C which is a powerful natural antioxidant. Consumption of foods rich in vitamin C helps the body develop resistance against infectious agents and scavenge harmful, pro-inflammatory free radicals from the body. Apple is a good source of B-complex vitamins such as riboflavin, thiamin, and pyridoxine (vitamin B6). Together, these vitamins help as co-factors for enzymes in metabolism as well as in various synthetic functions inside the human body (Eberhardt et al., 2000). Apples also contain small amount of minerals like potassium, phosphorus, and calcium. Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids that helps control heart rate and blood pressure through countering sodium actions (Soetan et al., 2010).
1.2.3.2 Orange Juice
Orange (specifically, the sweet orange) is the fruit of the citrus species, Citrus sinensis in the family Rutaceae (Figure 2). Oranges, whose flavor may vary from sweet to sour, are commonly peeled and eaten fresh or squeezed for juice.
Delicious and juicy orange contains an impressive list of essential nutrients, vitamins, minerals for normal growth and development and overall well-being. Nutrients in oranges are plenty and diverse (Franke et al., 2005). The fruit is low in calories, contains no saturated fats or cholesterol, but is rich in dietary fiber, pectin. They are an excellent source of vitamin C, which is a powerful natural antioxidant. Oranges contain a variety of phytochemicals. They contain very good levels of vitamin A, and other flavonoid antioxidants such as alpha and beta-carotenes, beta-cryptoxanthin, zea-xanthin and lutein which are known to have antioxidant properties. Vitamin A is required for maintaining healthy mucus membranes and skin and is essential for vision. Consumption of natural fruits rich in flavonoids protects the body from lung and oral cavity cancers (Ndife and Abbo, 2009). Flavonoids especially flavonones in oranges have been shown to possess several physiological properties which can help inhibit cell proliferation and promote cell differentiation (Vanamala et al., 2006). Orange is a very good source of B-complex vitamins such as thiamin, pyridoxine, and folates. These vitamins are essential in the sense that the body requires them from external sources to replenish. Orange also contains a very good amount of minerals like potassium and calcium.
Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool usually a juicer or squeezer and collecting the juice. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Orange juice just as orange is also rich in vitamin C, folic acid and potassium. It is an excellent source of bioavailable antioxidant phytochemicals (Franke et al., 2005) and significantly improves blood lipid profiles in people affected with hypercholesterolemia (Kurowska et al., 2000).
1.2.3.3 Pineapple Juice
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is the ovoid fruit of the tropical, perennial, drought-tolerant pineapple plant. It is a type of fruit that develops from many small fruitlets fused together around central core. Its pulp is juicy and fleshy with the stem serving as a supporting fibrous core. The outer skin features rough, tough, and scaly rind (Figure 3). The colour in the ripe fruits may be yellow, orange-yellow or reddish. Internally, its juicy flesh may range from creamy white to yellow and has a mix of sweet and tart taste with rich flavour. It is one of the most important commercial fruit crops in the world. It is known as the queen of fruits due to its excellent flavour and taste (Baruwa, 2013). Pineapple is the third most important tropical fruit in the world after Banana and Citrus. It is highly perishable and seasonal.
Pineapples are served fresh, cooked, juiced and can be preserved. Fresh pineapple is low in calories. Nonetheless, it is a storehouse for several unique health-promoting compounds, minerals and vitamins that are essential for optimum health. Mature and fresh pineapple contains water, 14% of carbohydrate, a protein digesting enzyme (bromelain), and good amount of citric acid, malic acid and B-complex group of vitamins (Hossain et al., 2015). It contains little or no protein, no saturated fats or cholesterol. The carbohydrates in pineapples are mostly simple sugars, such as sucrose, fructose and glucose. They also contain some fiber. The glycemic index value of pineapples can range from 45-66, which is in the medium range (Landon, 2007). Fresh pineapple is an excellent source of vitamin C. It contains low levels of vitamin A and beta-carotene which are known to possess antioxidant properties. Pineapple is also rich in minerals like copper, manganese and potassium. Vitamin A is essential for vision and also required for maintaining healthy mucusa and skin. Bromelain found in pineapple is a proteolytic enzyme that digests food by breaking down protein. Bromelain also has anti-inflammatory, anti-clotting and anti-cancer properties (Debnath et al., 2012). Studies have shown that consumption of pineapple regularly helps fight against arthritis, indigestion and worm infestation (Debnath et al., 2012; Hossain et al., 2015).
Pineapple was originally consumed only as a fresh fruit. With the development of the processing industry, the fruit is now prepared and consumed in various forms such as pineapple chunks, slices, juices, syrups, jams, crushed pineapple, diced pineapple etc. The wastes from processing the fruit are further processed into sugar, wines, vinegar and animal feed (Baruwa, 2013). Pineapple juice's composition varies depending on geography, season, process and time of harvest. Like many fruit juices, pineapple juice contains vitamin C, or ascorbic acid. It also contains vitamins B6 (pyridoxine) and manganese which benefits the body (Hossain et al., 2015). Manganese helps fight the ageing process by protecting the cells from free radicals that cause cellular damage associated with ageing and disease. It also helps the skin produce new collagen to allow for healing after injury (Hossain et al., 2015).
1.2.3.4 Red Grape Juice
Grape (Vitis vinifera) is another tropical fruit rich in high-profile nutrients. They are the storehouse of numerous health-promoting phytonutrients such as polyphenolic antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals (Xia et al., 2010). They are included in most modern diet in form of fresh table fruits, dry fruits, juice, or simply in salads. Botanically, they are small, round berries growing in clusters on a perennial and deciduous woody vine in the genus, Vitis (Figure 4). | CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preamble
This research is on Hepatocurative and antioxidant effect of ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions of detarium microcarpum stem bark in ccl4 induced liver damage in wistar rats. Herbal medicines are herbal preparations produced by subjecting plant materials to extraction, fractionation, purification, concentration or other physical or biological processes which may be produced for immediate consumption or as a basis for herbal products (WHO, 2001). Notwithstanding the extent of significant advancement in modern medicine in recent decades, plants still make an important contribution to health care. Traditionally they are used worldwide for the prevention and treatment of disease. Herbal plants were prescribed even when their active compounds were unknown because of their effectiveness and relatively low cost (Bhawna and Kumar, 2010). This observation is particularly more relevant to people in the developing countries of the world where the majority of the populations are living in the rural areas.
The liver plays an important role in regulating various physiological processes. It is essential in the body for maintenance, performance and regulating homeostatic functions. It is involved with almost all the biochemical pathways for growth, fight against diseases, nutrient supply, energy provision and reproduction. In addition, it aids metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and fat, detoxification, secretion of bile and storage of vitamins (Ahsan et al., 2009). Because of its central role in drug metabolism, it is the most vulnerable tissue for drug toxicity (Sunil et al., 2012). The role played by the liver in the removal of substances from the portal circulation makes it susceptible to persistent attack by offending foreign compounds, culminating in liver dysfunction (Bodakhe and Ram, 2007). The liver secretes bile, prothrombin, fibrinogen, blood-clotting factors and heparin, a mucopolysaccharide sulfuric acid ester that prevents blood from clotting within the circulatory system (Bhawna and Kumar, 2010). Toxic chemicals, xenobiotics, alcohol consumption, malnutrition, anaemia, medications, autoimmune disorders (Marina, 2006), viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D, etc.) and microbial infections (Sharma and Ahuja, 1997) are harmful and cause damage to the hepatocytes.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are continuously generated during metabolic processes to regulate a number of physiological functions essential to the body (Valko et al., 2007). These reactive oxygen species are prone to withdraw electrons from biological macromolecules such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids in order to gain stability in the biological system. This disruption may be attributed to a number of factors such as the inability of the cells to produce sufficient amounts of antioxidants, nutritional deficiency of minerals or vitamins (Abd Ellah, 2010). When the production of ROS exceeds the capability of the body to detoxify these reactive intermediates, oxidative stress would develop (Mena et al., 2009). Oxidative stress can be induced by variety of factors such as radiation or exposure to heavy metals and xenobiotics (e.g carbon tetrachloride). This may lead to drastic harm to the body such as membrane damage, mutations due to attenuation of DNA molecules, and disruption to various enzymatic activities in metabolism of the body (McGrath et al., 2001; Valko et al., 2006; Chanda and Dave, 2009).
Medicinal plants are important sources of antioxidants (Rice, 2004). Antioxidants stabilize or deactivate free radicals, often before they attack targets in biological cells (Nunes et al., 2012). Natural antioxidants either in the form of raw extracts or their chemical constituents are very effective in preventing the destructive processes caused by oxidative stress (Zengin et al., 2011). Recently interest in naturally occurring antioxidants has considerably increased for use in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products, because they are multifaceted in their multitude and magnitude of activity and provide enormous scope in correcting imbalance (Djeridane et al., 2006; Wannes et al., 2010). The beneficial medicinal effects of plant materials typically results from the combinations of secondary products present in the plant (Wink, 1999). Phytochemical constituents of medicinal plants (e.g. polyphenols, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, vitamins C and E), act as antioxidants by preventing damages to cell membrane due to cellular oxidative processes that may result in diseases (Omoregie and Osagie, 2011). They are found in all parts of plants such as leaves, fruits, seeds, roots and bark (Mathew and Abraham, 2006).
Antioxidants are broadly divided into enzymic antioxidants and non enzymic antioxidants. Enzymic antioxidants include the superoxide dismutases, glutathione peroxidase and catalase (Klaunig and Kamendulis, 2004). Non-enzymic antioxidants, which include vitamin E, vitamin C, ?-carotene, reduced glutathione, and coenzyme Q function to quench reactive oxygen species (Clarkson and Thompson, 2000). Antioxidants have various mechanisms such as prevention of chain initiation, binding of transition metal ion catalysts, decomposition of peroxides, prevention of continued hydrogen abstraction and radical scavenging (Rao et al., 2004). Many chemicals damage mitochondria, an intracellular organelle that produces energy, its dysfunction release excessive amount of oxidants which in turn damage hepatic cells. Activation of some enzymes in the cytochrome P450 system, such as CYP2E1, also leads to oxidative stress (Jaeschke et al., 2002).
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is a well known hepatotoxin used in diverse experimental models (Singh et al., 2008). In addition to hepatic problems, it causes dysfunction of the kidneys, lungs, testis, brain, and blood by generating free radicals (Ozturk et al., 2003; Khan et al., 2009). Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is rapidly transformed to trichloromethyl radical (CCl3*) and its derivative trichloromethyl peroxy radical (CCl3OO*), generated by cytochrome P450 of liver microsomes (Brent and Rumack, 1993). These free radicals react with membrane lipids leading to their peroxidation (Singh et al., 2008). Membrane disintegration of hepatocytes with subsequent release of membrane associated enzymes and necrosis are some of the consequences of CCl4 induced liver damage.
1.2 Statement of Research Problem
Hepatotoxicity is one of the very common ailments resulting into serious debilities ranging from severe metabolic disorders to even mortality (Anil et al., 2010). Liver injury due to chemicals or infectious agents may lead to progressive liver fibrosis and ultimately cirrhosis and liver failure (Anand, 1999). According to the report published by USFDA, more than 900 drugs, toxins, and herbs have been reported to cause liver injury, and drugs account for 20 40% of all instances of hepatic failure (Soni et al., 2011).
Liver ailments represent a major global health problem. Chronic liver cirrhosis and drug induced liver injury is the ninth leading cause of deaths in western and developing countries (Baranisrinivasan et al., 2009; Saleem et al., 2010).
In Nigeria, as in other parts of sub-saharan Africa, the major causes of liver cirrhosis include infections particularly chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (Otu, 1987 and Cook, 1980) and hepatitis C virus infection (Bojuwoye, 1996). There is increasing evidence that free radicals and reactive oxygen species play a crucial role in various steps that initiate and regulate the progression of liver diseases independently of the original agent (Jemal et al., 2007).
1.3 Justification
Liver diseases remain one of the major threat to public health and a worldwide problem (Asha and Pushpangdan, 1998). The use of medicinal plants with high level of antioxidant constituents has been proposed as an effective therapeutic approach for hepatic damages (Govind, 2011).
Many antioxidants have been used to protect organs from the free radical challenges. Several researches are attempting to explore the possibility of using herbs containing antioxidants as organ curative agents. In view of severe undesirable side effects of synthetic agents, there is a growing focus to follow systematic research methodology and to evaluate scientific basis for the traditional herbal medicines that are claimed to possess hepatocurative activity.
Though the stem bark of Detarium microcarpum is used traditionally in Nigeria as a valuable remedy to treat liver diseases, no detailed pharmacological investigation have been done to that respect. This is why the present study is being undertaken to investigate it?s hepatocurative and antioxidant activity.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.4.1 Aim
The aim of this study is to investigate the hepatocurative and antioxidant effect of ethylacetate and n-butanol fractions of Detarium microcarpum stem bark in CCl4-induced liver damage in rats.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
i. To identify and quantify levels of some phytochemicals present in the crude extract, ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions of Detarium microcarpum stem bark.
ii. To carry out in-vitro antioxidant activity (such as DPPH, reducing power and H202 radical scavenging activity) on ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions of Detarium microcarpum stem bark and determine the lethal dose (LD50) of the fraction with the highest activity.
iii. To determine the effects of the fraction with the highest activity on some biochemical parameters (such as ALT, AST, ALP, Bilirubin, Total protein, Albumin, Urea and Creatinine) in CCl4 induced liver damage in rats.
iv. To determine the effect of the fraction with highest activity on some endogenous antioxidant enzyme levels and lipid peroxidation in the tissues of the animals induced with CCl4.
1.5 Null Hypothesis
Ethyl-acetate and n-butanol fractions of Detarium microcarpum stem bark do not have any hepatocurative and antioxidant effect on CCl4 induced liver damage in rats. | CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This project is on assessment of dietary pattern and nutritional status of people living with hiv/aids attending some voluntary and counselling test (vct) units in kaduna metropolis.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, popularly known as AIDS, is caused by the virus, Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV). This is a tiny germ that is invisible to the eye that attacks the immune system of the body. AIDS is a condition in which the virus damages the body immune system and renders it helpless against any infection, (Hawkes et al., 2002). According to the World Health Organization (2005), AIDS is the most dreaded, most feared and the most talked about disease in the world today.It is a deadly disease that has no cure. According to Ojedokun (2004), there are two main sub types: HIV I and HIV II. HIV I is the most common type all over the world while HIV II is only common in West Africa. The intensity and the pattern with which HIV/AIDS affects nutritional status are very much different from that in other infections and in ordinary case of inadequate nutrients intake (Piwoz and Preble, 2000). Due to lack of cure for HIV/AIDS, the immune system of infected patients is under constant exposure to infections which adversely affect the nutritional status and immune competence of the subjects in question (Piwoz and Preble, 2000).
Malnutrition is a serious danger for people living with HIV/AIDS. Even at the early stages of HIV infection when no symptoms are apparent, HIV makes demands on the body‘s nutritional status (Walsh et al., 2003),the risk of malnutrition increases significantly during the course of the infection. Good nutrition cannot cure AIDS or prevent HIV infection, but it can help to maintain and improve the nutritional status of a person with HIV/AIDS and delay the progression from HIV to AIDS-related diseases (Piwoz and Preble, 2000). It can therefore improve the quality of life of people living with HIV/AIDS. Nutritional care and support are important from the early stages of the infection to prevent the development of nutritional deficiencies. A healthy and balanced diet will help to maintain body weight and fitness. Eating well helps to maintain and improve the performance of the immune system the body‘s protection against infection – and therefore helps a person to stay healthy (Bartlett, 2003). Many of the conditions associated with HIV/AIDS affect food intake, digestion and absorption, while others influence the functions of the body (Bartlett, 2003). Many of the symptoms of these conditions (e.g. diarrhoea, weight loss, mouth and throat sores, nausea or vomiting) are manageable with appropriate nutrition. Good nutrition will complement and reinforce the effect of any medication taken.
In Kaduna state, there are few data on the micronutrient status, lipid profile, prevalence of underweight and overweight among PLWHA. Hence, there is a need to study their nutritional status.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
Although weight loss and wasting remain common in HIV infection, nutrition related problems such as obesity, diabetes, hyperlipideamia and hypertension also increasingly affect people living with HIV (Piwoz and Preble, 2000). A shift in causes of death from acute opportunistic infections to other causes such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and obesity indicates the need for a more comprehensive approach to healthy nutrition for persons infected with HIV (Walsh et al., 2003).
Research has also revealed that micronutrients can modify the course of viral infection and restore the functionality of the immune system (Jariwalla et al., 2011).Studies conducted with both single and multiple nutritional supplements have shown that micronutrients act to control HIV/AIDS by; suppression of virus multiplication and spread, restoration of cell-mediated immune responses and, slowing the rate of progression and reducing the severity of AIDS(Jariwalla et al., 2011).
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
There are many publications on the epidemiology of the HIV/AIDS and the factors fuelling the epidemic in Nigeria, but there is paucity of data on the nutritional status of people diagnosed with HIV/AIDS. Assessment of nutrition and medical status is crucial to quality nutrition care for every person living with HIV; therefore, there is a need to carry out a comprehensive study on the dietary pattern, biochemical parameters, anthropometric characteristics and micronutrient status for quality nutrition care for persons living with HIV in Kaduna metropolis.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.4.1 Aim
To investigate the dietary pattern and nutritional status of People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) attending voluntary and counseling test (VCT) units of some Hospitals in Kaduna metropolis.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
The specific objectives of the study are:
- To assess the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of People Living with HIV/AIDS attending voluntary and counseling test units in Kaduna metropolis.
- To determine the anthropometric characteristics of People Living with HIV/AIDS attending voluntary and counseling test units in Kaduna metropolis.
- To assess some biochemical parameters of People Living with HIV/AIDS attending voluntary and counseling test units in Kaduna metropolis.
- To correlate the micronutrient status with some biochemical parameters of People Living with HIV/AIDS attending voluntary and counseling test units in Kaduna metropolis.
- To determine the dietary pattern of People Living with HIV/AIDS attending voluntary and counseling test units in Kaduna metropolis.
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This research is on Effects of quail (coturnix japonica) egg diet on blood sugar and lipid profile levels of alloxan induced diabetic albino rats. Good nutrition affects growth and development of the human body. Nutritional composition research has shown that eating well-balanced food can improve human health. Variety of foods, including vegetables, fruits, grain, and protein, are essential for the full range of nutrients required for good health. The right balance of calories, protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals provides energy and the variety of nutrients for growing children and for working adults. Foods that are high in fat, sugar, or salt should be limited in consumption because they do not provide important nutrients. Both the Child and Adult Care Program (CACFP) meal pattern, and the Pyramid Web site by US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, encourage eating variety of foods (US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2005).
Egg consumption is a popular choice for good nutrients, but by a wide margin the egg most often humanly consumed is the chicken egg, typically unfertilized (Applegate, 2000). The avian egg is an important source of nutrients, containing the proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and growth factors required by the developing embryo, as well as a number of defence factors to protect against bacterial and viral infection. Moreover, eggs contain substances with biological functions and activities, i.e. immune proteins, enzymes, etc. (Hansen et al., 1998; Nowaczewski et al., 2013), characterized by anti-adhesive and antioxidant properties, antimicrobial activities, immunomodulatory, anticancer, and antihypertensive activities, protease inhibitors, nutrient bioavailability, and functional lipids, highlighting the importance of egg and egg components in human health and in disease prevention and treatment (Kovacs-Nolan et al., 2005). Emphasis has been on poultry birds, whereas nutritive and economic benefits can also be derived from quail production since the quail bird is fast growing and resistant to more diseases, especially the Newcastle disease, than the domestic fowl (Oluyemi and Roberts, 2000).
With the world facing explosive increase in diabetes mellitus, there is a serious challenge to primary health care in developing countries with negative consequences on the economy. According to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) 2014 updates, out of the world seven billion population, 387million people, aged 20–79 y ears worldwide are diabetic, (IDF, 2014) giving a comparative prevalence of 8.3%, while 46.3% cases are undiagnosed . In every 7 seconds, a person dies of diabetes, with 4.9 million deaths in 2014 alone. Seventy seven percent (77%) of people with diabetes live in low and middle income countries. Africa has a recorded incidence of 2,150,274 (5.05%) diabetic patients with over 13million undiagnosed cases. In Nigeria, there are estimated 374,651 diabetic cases, with over 172,339 undiagnosed cases. These figures account for about 4.64% Nigerian adults between ages 20-79 living with diabetes. An estimated 105,090 Nigerians died in 2014 as a result of diabetes. An average diabetic Nigerian spent about ₦43,527.16 (US $178.39) in 2014 due to diabetes treatment (IDF, 2014). With this alarming prevalence rate, diabetes mellitus poses a major challenge globally and accounts for a number of disabilities and deaths worldwide.
Currently, diabetes therapy is based on the use of hypoglycemic drugs (sulfonamides, biguanides, and insulin), on hygieno-diet measures, exercise, and requires a lifelong treatment (IDF, 2014). With the level of poverty in developing nations like Nigeria, the need for a better and cheaper medication cannot be over emphasized. This informed the need of this study, to use Quail eggs as a cheap and alternative therapeutic means for the treatment and management of diabetes.
In most recent times (between 2013–2015) in Nigeria , Quail eggs received ample claims and publicity of being a wonder drug / diet (i.e. being able to treat diabetes and other life threatening diseases such as anaemia, HIV/AIDS, infertility, high blood pressure, e.t.c.) (http://quailfarm.co.uk/index.php/quail-and-health). This study also centred on verifying Quail egg’s acclaimed efficacy in the treatment and management of diabetes; using alloxan induced diabetic rats as research models.
Diabetes tends to lower "good" cholesterol levels and raises triacylglycerol and "bad" cholesterol levels, which increases the risk of heart disease and stroke. This common condition is called diabetic dyslipidemia (lipid profile going in the wrong direction). Dyslipidemia is characterized by elevated low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol (LDL-C ), triacylglycerol (TG), and total cholesterol (TC) levels, and lowered high-density lipoprotein–c holesterol (HDL-C) levels (Betteridge, 2000 and Barrett-Connor et al., 1982). This is a deadly combination that puts patients at the risk of premature coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis — a condition where the arteries become clogged with accumulated fat and other substances. Studies show a link between insulin resistance, which is a precursor to type 2 diabetes, and diabetic dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis and blood vessel diseases. These conditions can develop even before diabetes is diagnosed (http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/Diabetes/WhyDiabetesMatters/Cholesterol-
Abnormalities-Diabetes_UCM_313868_Article.jsp#.Vo6zH17a1dg. accessed 21st Aug., 2015). Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes are associated with a clustering of interrelated plasma lipid and lipoprotein abnormalities, which include reduced HDL cholesterol, a predominance of small dense LDL particles, and elevated triacylglycerol levels (American Diabetes Association, 2003). Each of these dyslipidemic features is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Increased hepatic secretion of large triacylglycerol -rich VLDL and impaired clearance of VLDL appears to be of central importance in the patho-physiology of dyslipidemia. Small dense LDL particles arise from the intravascular processing of specific larger VLDL precursors. Although behavioural interventions such as diet and exercise can improve diabetic dyslipidemia, for most patients, pharmacological therapy is needed to reach treatment goals. There are several classes of medications that can be used to treat lipid and lipoprotein abnormalities associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, including statins, fibrates, niacin, and thiazolidinediones (American Diabetes Association, 2003). Clinical trials have shown significant improvement in coronary artery disease after diabetic dyslipidemia treatment (Betteridge, 2000 and Barrett-Connor et al., 1982).
Insulin resistance may play a pivotal role in the development of diabetic dyslipidemia by influencing several factors. In insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, increased efflux of free fatty acids from adipose tissue and impaired insulin-mediated skeletal muscle uptake of free fatty acids increase fatty acid flux to the liver (Boden, 1997; Kelley and Simoneau, 1994). The fact that free fatty acid levels are elevated in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance suggests that insulin resistance associated with elevated free fatty acid levels occurs before the onset of hyperglycemia (Bluher et al., 2001). One study conducted in patients without diabetes showed that decreased glucose utilization in muscle was associated with acute elevation of free fatty acids (Dresner et al., 1999). Epidemiologic studies have also demonstrated a relationship between plasma free fatty acid levels and insulin resistance (Reaven and Chen, 1988). In the presence of insulin resistance, free fatty acids from triacylglycerol lipolysis are deposited in muscle, liver, heart, and pancreas. Notably, agents that lower elevated free fatty acids, such as the thiazolidinediones (TZDs), have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in muscle, liver, and adipose tissues (Mayerson et al., 2002 and Miyazaki et al., 2002).
Insulin resistance also increases hepatic lipase activity which is responsible for hydrolysis of phospholipids in LDL and HDL particles, resulting in the formation of smaller and denser LDL particles and a decrease in HDL2 (Tan et al., 1995; Watson et al., 1994 and Zambon et al., 1993).
This study is an attempt to justify the use of Quail egg diet, a form of behavioural intervention, as an effective alternative in the treatment and management of diabetic dyslipidemia in a situation where the alloxan induced diabetic rats become dyslipidemic.
- AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study was designed with the following aims and objectives:
- To determine the nutritional and elemental composition of the quail (Coturnix japonica) egg that is, the composition of both the whole quail egg and its shell.
- To determine the effects of quail (Coturnix japonica) egg diet on both the blood glucose level and the lipid profile levels of alloxan induced diabetic albino rats.
- To ascertain the histological effect of a synergetic mixture of processed quail egg and its shell on the liver and kidney cells of experimental rats.
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