| Description | |
- Unrestrained and portable active stereo speaker
- Free from the confines of wires and chords
- 20 hours of portable capabilities
- Double-ended Coil Cord with 3.5mm Stereo Plugs Included
- 3/4" Dome Tweeters: 2X and 4" Woofer: 1X
| CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study
Gender gaps in educational outcomes are now a matter of growing concern to educational researchers today. Boys are increasingly less likely than girls to attend university and to receive a bachelor?s degree. Meanwhile, female undergraduates continue to be under-represented in such technical fields as engineering and computer science. One popular, if controversial, response to these patterns has been a renewed push for single-sex education - an effort that has drawn support from across political divides (Dee, 2006).
Regardless of the academic subject, boys, according to Dee (2006) are two to three times more likely than girls to be seen as disruptive, inattentive, and unlikely to complete their homework. However, how boys and girls view academic subjects vary across subjects in ways that parallel the gender gaps in subject test scores. For example, girls are more likely than boys to report that they are afraid to ask questions in Mathematics, Science, and Social Sciences. They are also less likely to look forward to these classes or to see them as useful for their future. Meanwhile, boys, as compared to girls, register more negative perceptions of English class.
But while boys and girls may exhibit different behaviours and prefer different subjects, Dee (2006) noted that it is not quite the same thing as having a different experience because of the gender of the teacher. The critical question here, therefore, is: Are there any evidences that teachers relate better to students whose gender they share or vice versa? According to Dee (2006), significant patterns can be detected within the United States National Educational Longitudinal Studies (NELS) data survey. He noted that when a class is headed by a woman, boys are more likely to be seen as disruptive, while girls are less likely to be seen as either disruptive or inattentive. Besides, when taught by a man, girls are more likely to report that they did not look forward to the subject, that it is not useful for their future, or that they are afraid to ask questions. The above situation is noted by Dee to be strongest in Science, where students? report indicates that female science teachers are far more effective in promoting girls? engagement with those fields of study.
Boys also have fewer positive reactions to their academic subject when taught by an opposite gender teacher. In particular, when taught by a female teacher, boys are more likely to report that they do not look forward to the subject (i.e. loose interest in the subject or find it less intriguing).
Besides, gender differences are obvious from birth and children are socialized very-early into appropriate sex-type occupation (Azikiwe 1993). Gender according to the United Nations (UN) definition as adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women (F.M.C.W) 1996 in Beijing China is ?Man and Woman? and this definition applies to this study. Green (1979) reveals that culture and tradition have assigned occupations to males and females in the society, thus each sex is straightjacket in areas considered exclusive for it. For instance, women traditionally are expected to be employed in such areas as nursing and teaching.
Also, in the Nigeria?s Pre-colonial traditional society before the advent of western education, indigenous education of children is polarized between the sexes according to their future roles in the society.
Fafunwa (1974) captures this trend through his explanation that boys received rigorous training on the farm under the instruction of their fathers, while girls underwent training at home in child care food preparation and so on under strict supervision of their mothers. Not too long ago in these times of formal western education in Nigeria, a dichotomy existed strictly in the kind of vocations pursued by boys and girls, perhaps as carryover effects. Emeyeonu (1994:125) properly described this situation by stating that girls were not supposed to go into Engineering, Law, and Medicine but should go into professions like teaching and nursing. He went further to assert that:
?A female student applying to study mechanical engineering is look down upon as an oddity and an exception to the role and perhaps should have her head examined. Girls were supposed to do Arts, Education and Home Economics. Unfortunately, most young Nigeria girls aspiring for higher studies have come to believe this myth and have approached their choice of careers with diffidence and timidity?.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The majority of arguments of single-sex schools and classrooms focused not only on the effects of gender on interactions among students, but also on the need to increase the number of students with teachers of the same gender (Krieg, 2005).
Besides, researchers like Meece (1987), Hopf and Hatzichristou (1999), Rodriguez (2002), and Etaugh and Hughes (1975) have found that (i) teachers interact differently with students of similar gender than they do with students of opposite gender, and (ii) that a teacher?s perception of student?s characteristics and abilities varies systematically by gender. Other studies according to Krieg (2005) found that male students benefit at the expense of female students in the amount and quality of interaction received from teachers of both genders. Consequently, the arising questions here are: Is there any relationship between Economics teachers? gender and their attitude to teaching Economics? What relationship does Economics teachers? gender have with the quantity of class and home works given to students in Economics? Is there any relationship between Economics teachers? gender and students? performance in Economics? This study therefore attempts to find answers to the above posers through examining the correlation between teachers? gender and students? academic performance in Economics.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The objectives of this study will be to:
(i) determine whether the teachers? gender impacts his or her relationship with the respective students;
(ii) ascertain whether there is any relationship between the teachers? gender and the quantity and quality of class and home works given to students;
(iii) determine whether there is any relationship between the teachers? gender and students? performance; and
(iv) ascertain whether teachers? gender has any relationship with their attitude to teaching.
1.4 Research Questions
These questions will be adduced to guide the study.
(i) Is there any relationship between the teachers? gender and their attitude to teaching?
(ii) What relationship has teachers? gender with the quantity of class and home works given to students?
(iii) Is there any relationship between teachers? gender and students? academic performance?
(iv) Does the teachers? gender impact their relationship with their respective students?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses will be stated and tested during the study.
(i) There is no relationship between the teachers? gender and their attitude to teaching economics
(ii) There is no relationship between the teachers? gender and the quantity of class and home works given to students in economics
(iii) There is no relationship between teachers? gender and students? academic performance in economics
(iv) Teachers? gender does not impact their relationship with the respective students
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study would be significant for its content as a contribution to knowledge, as it articulates the relationship between teacher-gender differential influence on teacher?s relationship with students and the impact of this relationship on students? academic performance.
The study will also remain a reference document in the department of Art and Social Sciences, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos for researchers and students carrying out research on the same or similar topic.
The work will be useful to gender analyst. It will also be useful to the counsellor trainers and psychologist. It will also be useful to the teachers, parents and students.
Ultimately, its findings will also be of great reference to government, educational planners and policy makers, educational administrators and so on, when making decisions on issues pertaining to recruitment of teachers to boys? or girls? school.
1.7 Delimitation of the Study
This study covered only ten secondary schools randomly selected from the secondary schools in Lagos State. Besides, only thirty (30) economics teachers and thirty (30) economics students randomly selected from the ten sampled schools were involved in the study. In the whole, the study was limited to examine the relationship between teachers? gender and students? performance in Economics.
1.8 Limitations of the Study
These were some of the limitations encountered during the process of this study.
(i) There was limited time to cover more schools as the study would have needed.
(ii) Financial constraint limited the study from involving a larger part of the population.
(iii) The restrictive attitude of custodians of secondary data centres limited the researcher?s access to adequate secondary as well as the volume of the literature reviewed.
1.9 Definition of Operational Terms
(i) Gender: This refers to biologic maleness and femaleness of an individual.
(ii) Teaching: This is process of developing the cognitive, affective and psychomotor powers of the learners. It is also a process whereby knowledge is transmitted from the teacher to the learner. It is as well a complex process whereby the learner is made to pay attention, make observation, association ideas, and remembers previous experiences.
(iii) Profession: A type of work for which you need special knowledge and training.
(iv) Teacher: Anyone who imparts knowledge to another who is the recipient of what is being imparted (learner). |
- Unrestrained and portable active stereo speaker
- Free from the confines of wires and chords
- 20 hours of portable capabilities
- Double-ended Coil Cord with 3.5mm Stereo Plugs Included
- 3/4" Dome Tweeters: 2X and 4" Woofer: 1X
| CHAPTER ONE
Background to the study
The relevance of profession to an individual or his success in it is not determined by the preponderance of same sexed people with the individual in that profession. Gender stereotyping is a conformist behaviour which hardly makes for a divergent expression of one personal quality or the uniqueness of an individual. This validates the reasoning that no profession should be held as conventional for any human gender.
Gender according to the United Nations definition as adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women (1996) in Beijing China is ?Man and Woman?. But to Bassow (1991), gender is seen as a psychological term describing behaviours and attributes expected of individuals on the basis of being born either male or female. It is on this note that Azikiwe, (1993) illuminates that gender differences are obvious from birth and children are socialized very early into appropriate sex-typed occupation. This assertion tries to identify gender as one of the significant determinants of choice of vocations among people. Emeyonu (1994) articulates this point in his words stating that girls were not supposed to go into Engineering, Law, or Medicine; but should go into professions like teaching and nursing. He went further to assert that:
?A female student applying to study mechanical engineering is look down upon as an oddity and an exception to the rule and perhaps should have her head examined. Girls were supposed to do Arts, Education and Home Economics. Unfortunately, most young Nigerian girls aspiring for higher studies have come to believe this myth and have approached their choice of careers with difference and timidity? (p 125)
Besides, culture and tradition working through the family setting have assigned occupations to males and females in the society; thus each sex is straight-jacketed in areas considered exclusive for it according to family traditional belief or background. In the Nigeria pre-colonial traditional setting before the advent of Western Education, Traditional Education was highly characterized by domestication of girls and trade learning for boys; hence, education of children was polarized between sexes according to their future roles in the society. Fafunwa (1974) who captured this trend in his work notes that boys received rigorous training on the farm under the instruction of their father and latter sent to learn one trade or the other under the apprenticeship system; while girls underwent training at home in child care, food preparation and so on under strict supervision of their mothers. Today, Western Education is seen to have taken over from Traditional Education, yet, may be as carry over effects of the Traditional Education impartation, a strict dichotomy still exists in the kind of vocations pursued by boys and girls in a family. The family background of a person/apprentice has always been a determining factor in the person?s choice of vocation. Parents at all times want to channel the future of their children and as such go as far as deciding on their children?s choice of careers and vocations without the slightest consideration of whether their children had any flare in the vocations chosen for them.
Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is an integral part of the general education process. (UNESCO 2001) this socio-economic factor has been subject of various definitions depending on the needs of the nations at that point in time, or the perception of the interested individual. However, the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has advanced a definition which may be considered as universal and adaptable to the various level of the socioeconomic development of the nations. This definition attempts to liberalize TVE and compensate for the apathy that is usually demonstrated towards its development at some early stages until the needs inevitably arouse. (Kantor, 1986, UNESCO & ILO 2002, FRN 2004) The UNESCO definition, which has also been adopted by Nigeria stated thus:
"Technical and Vocational Education is used as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of educational processes involving in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and acquisition of practical skills, attitudes understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life " (UNESCO & ILO 2002, FRN 2004).
The inherent characteristics of TVE that made it amenable to entrepreneurship included it being means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work; an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship; an instrument for producing environmentally sound sustainable development; and a method of facilitating poverty alleviation (UNESCO/ILO 2002 FRN 2004).
According to Daniel and Hut tin (2002), quality Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), help develop the individual's knowledge of science and technology in a broad occupational area requiring technical and professional competencies and specific occupational skills. This virtue?s essential for the development of entrepreneurship. TVE represents the productive aspect of the educational process in of that it is directly linked with the world of work, TVE is an investment not a cost, with significant returns, including the well being of workers; enhanced productivity and internal competitiveness (UNESCO 2000) The accumulation of these benefits constitutes a profit to the investment and as such compensation for the risk-taking tendencies of an entrepreneur.
The current emphasis on vocational education started in the primary Education section in 1976 with the implementation of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme, which the Federal government of Nigeria was the sole financier. Secondary schools embraced the vocational/technical emphasis in 1982/83 school year when the first batch of the UPE was ready for secondary education. Vocational/technical education was made so popular that children from well-to-do families sought and gained admission in vocational/technical schools, which before then was seen to be demeaning for children from higher socio-economic backgrounds in Nigeria. That was when the 6-3-3-4 education structure started.
Nigeria is a developing nation characterized by a slow rate of industrial growth, which does not match her population growth rate. Since the mid 1970s emphasis has been placed on vocational education as a strategy for combating unemployment of youths. Vocational education was envisaged as the type that school leavers could employ themselves and others if they become entrepreneurs. This prospect is made for vocational school leavers irrespective of sex.
Besides, Nigeria as a developing nation is characterized by a slow industrial growth rate which lays emphasis on right choices of vocations towards entrepreneurial skill development as a strategy for combating unemployment of youths. Entrepreneurial vocations are therefore envisaged as the type of courses needed by school leavers to be self-employed and employers of others as they become entrepreneurs. Besides, we are in globalization era which widens opportunities for employment and entrepreneurship; and if youths are highly proficient in the requisite skills, they can become employers or gain employment not only in their areas of specialization in the country but even outside the national borders.
Statement of Problem
This study attempts to examine gender and family background as determinants of choice of vocations among apprentices in vocational centres in Lagos. This is predicated on the findings of Akpan (2006); Etuk (2002) and Chimuaza & Obanaya (1989) which reveal that gender and family related factors are significant determinants of choice of careers among youths.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which the choice of vocations among apprentices in vocational centres in Lagos is influenced by gender and family background. Based on the above main objective, this study would examine the extent to which choice of vocations among apprentices is influenced by the following:
? Gender of the apprentice,
? Educational background of the family,
? Financial status of the family,
? Religious background of the family, and
? Cultural background of the family.
Research Questions
The following questions are raised to guide the study in attaining the above objectives.
(i) Is gender a determinant of choice of vocation among apprentices?
(ii) Does educational background of the family determine the choice of vocation among apprentices?
(iii) Is financial status of the family a determinant of choice of vocation among apprentices?
(iv) Does the family religious belief affect the choice of vocations among apprentices?
(v) Is cultural background of the family a determinant of choice of vocations among apprentices?
Research Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were posited for the study.
(i) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by their gender.
(ii) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the educational background of their family.
(iii) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the financial status of their family.
(iv) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the religious belief of their family.
(v) Choice of vocation among apprentices is not significantly determined by the cultural background of their family.
Significance of the Study
This study is a contribution to knowledge for its painstaking elaborate effort to articulate the extent to which choice of vocations among apprentices in Lagos is susceptible to their gender differentials and family related factors.
The study will also serve the purpose of a reference document in the department of Adult Education, University of Lagos for researchers and students carrying out research on the same or similar topic.
The findings of this study will be useful to gender analysts as well as to counsellor trainers and psychologists. It will also be useful to instructors at the vocational centres as well as to parents and students.
Scope of the Study
This study is limited to examine the extent to which choice of vocations among apprentices in Lagos is determined by gender and family related factors. The study covered only the vocational centres in the Akoka area of Lagos State; but was limited to involve only Federal College of Education (Tech), Akoka, Lagos. Besides, out of the entire apprentices of the above centre, only hundred and twenty (120) of them were involved in the study. | CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Background to the Study
Diarrhoea accounts for high levels of mortality in young children in developing countries like Nigeria, despite worldwide efforts to improve overall child health levels. Each year, in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, approximately five million children under five years of age die from acute diarrhoea. About 80 per cent of these deaths are in the first two years of life (Lucas & Gilles, 2009) In the developing world as a whole, about one-third of infant and child deaths are due to diarrhoea and approximately 70 per cent of diarrhoeal deaths are caused by dehydration - the loss of large quantity of water and salts from the body, which needs water to maintain blood volume and other fluids to function properly (Gupta & Mahajan, 2005). UNICEF (2002) submitted that in Nigeria, infant mortality rates are twice as high in rural settings as they are in urban ones due to poor hygiene and poor sanitation. Of the annual 3 million infant births in Nigeria, approximately 170,000 result in deaths that are mainly due to poor knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhoea. Several factors are likely to contribute to the very high diarrhoea morbidity and mortality rates, in children under-five years including poverty, female illiteracy, poor water supply and sanitation, poor hygiene practices and inadequate health services (Park, 2009). Malnutrition is another established risk factor for mortality among children with diarrhoea disease. This may be due to inadequate case management. The first line of management of diarrhoea, is therefore, the prevention of dehydration. This can be achieved at home using Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT).
Diarrhoea is the disturbance of the gastrointestinal tract comprising of changes in intestinal motility and absorption, leading to increase in the volume of stools and in their consistency (Ballabriga, Hilpert & Isliker, 2000). In diarrhoea, stool contains more water than normal stool and is often called loose or watery stool. In certain cases, they may contain blood in which case the diarrhoea is called dysentery (Obionu, 2001). Any passage of three or more watery stools within a day (24 hours) is referred to as diarrhoea (Tauxe, 1997). The consistency and the volume of stool constitute how to classify diarrhoea.
World Health Organization - WHO (1993) classified diarrhoea as acute or persistent based on its duration. An episode of diarrhoea that lasts less than two weeks is acute diarrhoea, while diarrhoea that lasts more than two weeks is persistent. Morley (2000) further classified diarrhoea according to its typology: Secretary diarrhoea, osmotic diarrhoea and exudative diarrhoea. Secretary diarrhoea results from active process in the intestinal epithelium stimulated by the presence of toxin, chemical or nutritional product in the intestinal linning. Osmotic diarrhoea is caused by the presence of the intestinal linning of osmotically active solutes that are poorly absorbed by the injection of laxatives such as magnesium sulphate or magnesium hydroxide. Exudative diarrhoea is associated with damage to the mucosa lining leading to outpouring of mucus, blood and plasma protein among other substances. However, it is important to note that the classification of diarrhoea does not influence the cause.
Diarrhoea is a symptom of infection caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms most of which can be spread by contaminated water. Diarrhoea in most cases is caused by three major groups of micro-organisms namely; Viruses, bacteria and protozoa or parasites (Lucas & Gilles, 2009). The main agents of diarrhoea according to them are enteroviruses (e.g. rotavirus, escherichia coli, campylobacter spp, shigella, vibrio cholera, salmonella (non typhoid), entamoeba histolytica, giardia lamblia, cryptosporidium). These are further grouped in the following ways: Viruses (e.g. Rota virus); Bacteria (e.g. shigella, escherichia coli, vibrio cholerae, salmonella non typhoid, campylobacter spp). Parasites (e.g. entamoeba histolytica, crytosporidium and giardia lamblia). All over the world, viruses especially rotavirus has been identified as the major cause of acute diarrhoea in children. Studies in Nigeria also found viruses as the major causes of diarrhoea in 60 per cent of cases with bacteria responsible for about only 3-20 per cent. Most of these pathogens are transmitted by faeco-oral route. Childhood diarrhoea within the context of this study refers to any type of loose, watery stool that occurs more frequently than usual in a child. The various causative agents vary according to the signs and symptoms manifesting from the disease.
The main consequence of diarrhoea are frequent loose or watery stools, the risk of dehydration, damage to intestine (especially when there is bloody diarrhoea) and loss of appetite with or without vomiting. However, Victoria, Bryce, Fountaine and Monasch (2000) asserted that signs of dehydration are not evident until there is acute fluid loss of approximately 4-5 per cent of body weight. The signs and symptoms of dehydration include sunken fontanelle, dry mouth and throat, fast and weak pulse, loss of skin elasticity and reduced amount of urine. This loss leads to shock and untimely death of under-five. Werner (2001) noted that dehydration takes its heaviest toll on infants and children under-five. The signs and symptoms according to Longmach, Wilkinson and Rajagopalan (2004) are passage of frequent loose watery stools, abdominal cramps or pain, fever particularly if there is an infectious cause and bleeding. Bacteria and parasites often can produce bloody diarrhoea (dysentary). In addition, inflammatory bowel disease, polyps and colorectal cancer can cause blood and mucus in the stools, nausea and vomiting may also be present in the case of infection.
The main dangers of diarrhoea are dehydration and malnutrition (WHO, 1993). Dehydration according to WHO is most often caused by loss of a large amount of water and salt from the body, while malnutrition can be caused by an inadequate diet due to poverty, a lack of appropriate foods or incorrect beliefs about feeding, frequent infections of which diarrhoea is one of them.
Spradley and Allender (1996) stated that the most common modes of transmission of diarrhoea are contaminated food and water, dirty feeding utensils (especially feeding bottles and teats) and the faecally contaminated fingers of the infants or the mother. Infection occurs through ingesting food contaminated with adequate doses of Salmonella, and Shigella or E. Coli. The cycle begins when the infectious agent multiplies and grows in the food medium. The agent subsequently invades the host upon ingestion of the food.
There are other physical modes of transmission of diarrhoea as identified by the United Nations Children?s Fund - UNICEF (1998). These include: poor source of water supply, especially in rural areas; poor environmental sanitation leading to attitudinal problems of defecating in open spaces, pit latrine, bushes and in the streams (used for drinking and bathing). Feeding bottle is also a feature of infection (Federal Rebublic of Nigeria - FRN 2002). Lucas and Gilles (2009) also maintained that transmission of diarrhoea occurs by the faecal-oral route due to poor standards of personal and environmental hygiene. These conditions will determine the seriousness of infection of diarrhoea. The most important aspect of managing a child with diarrhoea are preventing or treating dehydration and maintaining good nutrition.
These preventive practices according to WHO (1993) include breast feeding, improved weaning, use of plenty of water for hygiene and clean water for drinking, hand washing, use of latrines, proper disposal of the stools of young children, use of Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) and Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) and immunization against measles. Cutting (1994) stressed that drinking extra fluid in the early stages of diarrhoea is crucial in preventing dehydration and subsequent death. He also noted that the combination of giving more fluid than usual as soon as diarrhoea starts and continuing feeding is an effective home therapy for acute diarrhoea. The knowledge and practice of these becomes necessary for the mothers in the issues of childhood diarrhoea.
Traditionally, mothers are expected to spend most of their time in the house, looking after their children and carrying out other domestic functions. It may be right and natural, therefore, that the first person to manage a diarrhoea episode at home is possibly the mother. Mothers on this basis have been identified as the most important people involved in the management of childhood diarrhoea, hence mothers are used for this study. Landy (1992) referred to them as the key persons and managers of the home. She asserted that people, especially mothers possess adequate knowledge about their baby?s health and disease prevention. Thus, they are recognized as very important persons for the smooth running of the family, including supervision of health of their children. Macleans (1998), on his own part, accorded mothers the traditional responsibility of looking after their children with regard to weaning and nursing care. This, according to him, is because of their being close to their children. This situation is similar to the relationship between mothers and their children in Ezeagu LGA. As asserted by Davely and Wilson (1981) and Bethann, Gopel, Douglas and Lynn (1992), literate mothers are better able to look after their children than non-literate ones. Thus, those who possess the appropriate knowledge are more likely to be able to take the appropriate action to protect their children especially the under five (childhood).
According to Hodges (2001) childhood is a period of rapid physical growth, including the development of the brain almost to its full adult size, and is also a critical period for the development of the cognitive functions. He further added that the key factors for child growth and development are adequate care, good health, nutrition and stimulation. Inadequate nutrition and care in the first few years of life can seriously interfere with brain development and lead to such neurological and behavioural disorders as learning disabilities (Bargley, 1996). Childhood in the context of this study means the condition or period of being a child or a young human being below the age of five. The knowledge of adequate and quality childhood care could lead to healthiness of the child in terms of prevention of early childhood diseases like diarrhoea.
Knowledge according to Winifred (1989) is accumulated facts, truth, principles and information to which human mind has access. Knowledge can be defined as the sum of conceptions, views and propositions which has been established and tested (Conforth, 1996). The Nigerian Education Research Council - NERC (1982) asserted that an educated and knowledgeable person is one who understands, among other things the basic facts concerning health and disease and protects his or her own health and that of the community. WHO (1995) also maintained that if a person is well informed in the area of health, he or she would be able to reject practices that imperil his or her health. The individual will also be well equipped to make the right decision concerning the children and family, and will play active role in improving the society in which the person lives. In the context of this study, knowledge refers to the act of having adequate information and understanding of the concept, signs and symptoms, modes of transmission and management practices of diarrhoea by the child bearing mothers. Adequate or high level knowledge of the concepts, signs and symptoms, mode of transmission of diarrhoea is capable of guaranteeing proper management practices of diarrhoea among children.
Management according to Osinem (2008) is the co-ordination of all the resources of an organization through the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain organizational objectives. Koontz and Weighrich (2005) described management as the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals working together in groups efficiently accomplish selected aims. Management as defined by wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia (2007) is the art and science of getting things done through others. It can also refer to the person who performs the act of management. Management in this context involves childbearing mothers doing or producing something like proper breastfeeding, washing feeding bottles, washing plates and hands, keeping the environment clean and producing oral rehydration solution to cope with childhood diarrhoea. Ekenedo (1994) noted that there was a relationship between knowledge and management practice adopted by mothers. She concluded that better life will not come from mere acquisition of knowledge but from its practice.
Practice, according to Hornby (2001) is a way of doing something that is common or habitual; it is a way of doing something or expected way in a particular situation. Funks and Wagnalls (2003) defined practice as any customary action or proceeding regarded as individuals habit. Sally (2004) further defined practice as an established way of doing things especially one that developed through experience and knowledge. When management relates to practice, it becomes management practice.
Bucher (1994) perceived management practice as the application of good health actions to ones daily living such as proper personal hygiene and nutrition. In this study, management practices refer to all the actions that are undertaken by mothers to avert childhood diarrhoea. There are many such management practices.
WHO (1993) identified a number of management practices and these are: breast feeding, Oral Rehydration Therapy(ORT), weaning practices, use of plenty of water for hygiene and use of clean water for drinking, hand washing, use of latrines, safe disposal of stools of young children and measles immunization. Early knowledge and practice of these in the home may increase the chances of its efficacy and likely reduce complications following diarrhoea. It is most likely that mothers who are the home-makers will make use of them in order to save their children when they are informed. Okafor (1993) opined that women are better able to understand information and follow instructions if their level of education and information should be raised. The way of determining if women possess adequate knowledge regarding childhood diarrhoea is to assess the level of knowledge they possess about the aspects of the disease.
Level of knowledge and practice can be ascertained in numerous ways. Ashur (1977) opined that a proportion of less than 40 per cent correct response should be taken as indicator of low level of knowledge, 40 - 59 per cent is considered average and 60 - 80 per cent is considered high, while over 80 per cent is regarded as very high level of knowledge. Okafor
(1997) modified Ashur?s four scales of measurement into five scales by carving two levels that is, 10-20 per cent as ?very low? and 21-39 per cent as ?low? out of Ashur?s proportion of less than 40 per cent described as ?low? level of knowledge. The Ashur?s (1977) principle was adopted in the present study to determine the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhea by mothers in Ezeagu L.G.A.
This study was carried out in Ezeagu L.G.A of Enugu State, with its headquarter at Aguobu Owa. The inhabitants of the area are mainly farmers, civil servants and traders. The possible sources of water supply range from the use of stream, tanker water to the occasional use of tap water. They also use rain water during rainy seasons. General environmental sanitation is poor as there are no facilities for refuse disposal. They make use of open refuse dumps to dispose of refuse - dumping them into nearby bushes, burn them or dumped by the roadside. They use pit latrines and nearby bushes for sewage disposal. However, some well- to-do families make use of water closet system. Some are literate while others are not. The sociodemographic factors that may influence this study include; education, age and parity of the women. This is because an educated mother might use health information more than the uneducated counterparts (Okafor, 1993). Their age and parity also differed and might have conferred different levels of experience which may also affect the management of childhood diarrhoea. Studies such as those of Rao, Vinod, Mishra and Rutherford (1998), which revealed that more educated women were more likely than less educated women to manage diarrhoea in children. Ekenedo (1994) found that age and parity level might affect the rate at which childhood diarrhoea is managed. This revelation which was made by Ekenedo (1994) Sixteen years ago and confirmed by Rao et al (1998) - might have influence on mothers in Ezeagu LGA where the present study will be carried out.
The desire to effect change in behaviour for reducing the risk of future illness according to Philips (1991) should be based upon theoretical models that identify predictors of behavioural change. Several models or theories concentrate on the significance of socio- cognitive variables in preventive health. Theoretical models relevant to childhood diarrhoea knowledge and management practices among mothers in the context of the present study will include the following: health action process approach, systems management theory and self efficacy theory.
The extents to which mothers in Enugu state portray their knowledge and management practice of childhood diarrhoea do not appear to have received adequate research attention. This cannot be less true about mothers in Ezeagu LGA. Finding out these, certainly, will represent a positive step forward in the effort to promote the childhood diarrhoea knowledge and management practices. Following from these therefore, one is then inclined to ask, what is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers in Ezeagu LGA of Enugu state towards the childhood diarrhoea and what management practices do they adopt? The above in essence, represent the reason of this study.
Statement of the Problem
Adequate and accurate knowledge has been admitted as a prerequisite for the adoption of desirable health behaviour. WHO (1995) asserted that when a person is well-informed, the individual will be equipped to make the right decision concerning the health of the children and family and will take an active role in improving the society in which the person lives. Mothers should have adequate knowledge of the childhood diseases, among which diarrhea is one. This knowledge which they gained from the different MCH clinics should help the mothers to take adequate and accurate care of their children.
Regrettably, in spite of the knowledge gained by these mothers, childhood diarrhea is found to be the second main cause of under-five mortality the world over, in the developing countries and in Nigeria in particular. It is not unlikely that low level of knowledge of mothers in Ezeagu LGA may militate against the effective performance of diarrhea prevention practices.
It is against this background of the cases and magnitude of diarrhoeal diseases, its associated implications and complications and the need for child safety and health promotion that the researcher was motivated to ascertaining the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhea by mothers in Ezeagu LGA of Enugu State.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to find out the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhea by mothers in Ezeagu LGA. Specifically, the study intends to find out:
1. level of knowledge of the concept of diarrhoea possessed by mothers in Ezeagu LGA;
2. level of knowledge of the signs and symptoms of childhood diarrhoea possessed by mothers.
3. level of knowledge of modes of spread or transmission of diarrhoea possessed by mothers.
4. level of knowledge of the dangers of childhood diarrhoea possessed by mothers in Ezeagu LGA.
5. level of knowledge of preventive measures against childhood diarrhoea possessed by mothers.
6. the management practices of childhood diarrhoea by mothers in Ezeagu LGA;
7. the difference in the knowledge of mothers about childhood diarrhoea according to level of education;
8. the difference in the management practices of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on level of education;
9. the difference in the knowledge of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on age;
10. the difference in management practices of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on age;
11. the difference in the knowledge of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on parity
;
12. the difference in the management practices of mothers about childhood diarrhoea based on parity.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study;
1. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding concept of childhood diarrhoea?
2. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding signs and symptoms of diarrhoea?
3. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding modes of transmission of childhood diarrhoea?
4. What is the mother?s level of knowledge of the dangers of childhood diarrhoea?
5. What is the level of knowledge possessed by mothers regarding the preventive measures of childhood diarrhoea?
6. What are the management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea in Ezeagu L.G.A?
7. What is the difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to level of education?
8. What are the differences in the diarrhoea management practices of mothers regarding diarrhoea according to level of education?
9. What is the difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to age?
10. What are the differences in the management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to age?
11. What is the difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to parity? and
12. What are the differences in the management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to parity?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses are hereby postulated for the study and will be tested at .05 level of significance.
1. There is no statistically significant difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to age.
2. There is no statistically significant difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to level of education.
3. There are no statistically significant differences in the management practices of childhood diarrhoea by mothers according to parity.
4. There is no statistically significant difference in the level of knowledge of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea according to parity.
5. There are no statistically significant differences in the management of childhood diarrhoea by mothers according to age.
6. There is no statistically significant difference in management practice of childhood diarrhoea by mothers according to level of education.
Significance of the Study
Information, of both local and foreign origin abounds regarding childhood diarrhoea in Nigeria. The study will ginger interest in the area of childhood health and disease in Nigeria. Mothers especially childbearing women will benefit from the result of the study as it will provide them with appropriate information on the concept, signs and symptoms, modes of transmission and the preventive measures of childhood diarrhoea. This will enable the women to make informed choices on the adoption of the management practices. Appropriate knowledge will influence them and enhance their practice. It will also help them in educating the public on the preventive measures of childhood diarrhoea. Low level of knowledge on the other hand will equally compel health policy makers to step up efforts in the area of education, seminars, workshops especially in rural areas with a view to raising the level of knowledge of the people regarding childhood diarrhoea and its management practices.
The result on the management of childhood diarrhoea by mothers will be useful to mothers and caregivers. Appropriate practice will be encouraged and allow these mothers and caregivers to carry out these practices in the already established direction. On the other hand, inappropriate practice will call for adjustment and improvement and provide enlightenment efforts to achieve better results. Specifically, the data to be generated on the management practices of mothers may likely sensitize the mothers on the childhood diarrhoea in Ezeagu LGA to encourage identified sound practices while engineering changes in the unwholesome practices of mothers towards childhood diarrhoea.
The findings of differences in the level of knowledge and management practice according to level of education will be useful to mothers, caregivers and institutions of learning. These mothers and caregivers by level of knowledge, who had adequate knowledge and appropriate practice may be encouraged. Those with low level of knowledge and inappropriate practice may be exposed to education and enlightenment interventions by health workers that will enhance their knowledge and management practice of childhood diarrhoea.
The findings will be useful to the general public who may need appropriate information on childhood diarrhoea. Researchers will benefit from the study. They can build on the findings for further research is this area of knowledge. The data concerning this study may help to enrich the pool of data on the subject matter. Such data may also be beneficial to both Health and Education ministries in Enugu state, and may form the basis for future policy formulation and modification.
The study has identified some of the demographic factors associated with the knowledge and management practices of childhood diarrhoea. This will help health workers to know the group of mothers that needs more education on childhood diarrhoea. These adjustments will facilitate understanding and corresponding behaviour among mothers concerning childhood diarrhoea. When this happens mothers will be convinced to adopt appropriate practices in managing diarrhoea cases. The end product of this will be a morbidity and mortality decline.
Finally, scholars and reading public will benefit from the theoretical significance of the study. It will contribute to the synthesis of the relevant theories in the field of study. It seeks to explain why people think, feel, and act the way they do. The study will add to the existing literature in the field of health education and child health in particular.
Scope of the Study
The study was delimited to mothers in Ezeagu LGA. of Enugu state, which is made up of eight towns namely; Imezi owa, Aguobu owa, Mgbagbu owa, Oghe, Olo, Awha, Umanaa and Umumba. Ezeagu LGA is located some 20 kilometers south west of Enugu, the Enugu state capital in Eastern Nigeria. The study was concerned with finding out the childhood diarrhoea level of knowledge and management practices of mothers in Ezeagu
L.G.A. This will consist of the causes, modes of spread, signs and symptoms and control/preventive measures or management of childhood diarrhoea. The socio-demographic factors of age, level of education and parity and their relationship to the knowledge and management practices of mothers regarding childhood diarrhoea will also be explored |
| Content | Abstract
This project looks at Examining the impact of online reservation system on the profitability of the hotel. This study examines the impact of online reservation system on the profitability of the hotel. The objectives of this study are to ascertain the difference between traditional and online reservation system for promoting hotels performance in Ikorodu Metropolis determine the extent to which traditional reservation system affect the Performance of Hotels in Ikorodu Metropolis and to determine the extent to which online reservation system enhance Performance of Hotels in Ikorodu Metropolis. This study examines a cross-sectional and quantitative approach adopted to achieve the study objectives. Therefore, Regression Model was employed using quantitative data. Quantitative data analysis involved descriptive zero-order correlations and Regression Modelling using SPSS version 25. This study revealed that there is a significant difference between traditional and online reservation system in promoting hotel industries also, the traditional reservation system has a less significant effect on the performance of hotels in Ikorodu Metropolis and this study revealed that online reservation systems significantly enhance the performance of Hotels in Ikorodu Metropolis. Based on the findings, the study recommended that the hotel industry should embrace the use of an online reservation system since it contributes more to their performance Manual reservation system can also be retained by the Hotel industry and the government should introduce policies that can drive technology positively, this will encourage Hotel owners to dive more into the online reservation system. | Embodying the Raw, Wayward Spirit of Rock 'N' Roll
Embodying the raw, wayward spirit of rock ‘n’ roll, the Kilburn portable active stereo speaker takes the unmistakable look and sound of Marshall, unplugs the chords, and takes the show on the road.
Weighing in under 7 pounds, the Kilburn is a lightweight piece of vintage styled engineering. Setting the bar as one of the loudest speakers in its class, the Kilburn is a compact, stout-hearted hero with a well-balanced audio which boasts a clear midrange and extended highs for a sound that is both articulate and pronounced. The analogue knobs allow you to fine tune the controls to your personal preferences while the guitar-influenced leather strap enables easy and stylish travel.
What do you get
Sound of Marshall, unplugs the chords, and takes the show on the road.
Weighing in under 7 pounds, the Kilburn is a lightweight piece of vintage styled engineering. Setting the bar as one of the loudest speakers in its class, the Kilburn is a compact, stout-hearted hero with a well-balanced audio which boasts a clear midrange and extended highs for a sound that is both articulate and pronounced. The analogue knobs allow you to fine tune the controls to your personal preferences while the guitar-influenced leather strap enables easy and stylish travel.
The FM radio is perhaps gone for good, the assumption apparently being that the jury has ruled in favor of streaming over the internet. The IR blaster is another feature due for retirement – the S6 had it, then the Note5 didn’t, and now with the S7 the trend is clear.
Perfectly Done
Meanwhile, the IP68 water resistance has improved from the S5, allowing submersion of up to five feet for 30 minutes, plus there’s no annoying flap covering the charging port
- No FM radio (except for T-Mobile units in the US, so far)
- No IR blaster
- No stereo speakers
If you’ve taken the phone for a plunge in the bath, you’ll need to dry the charging port before plugging in. Samsung hasn’t reinvented the wheel with the design of the Galaxy S7, but it didn’t need to. The Gala S6 was an excellently styled device, and the S7 has managed to improve on that. | | Embodying the Raw, Wayward Spirit of Rock 'N' Roll
Embodying the raw, wayward spirit of rock ‘n’ roll, the Kilburn portable active stereo speaker takes the unmistakable look and sound of Marshall, unplugs the chords, and takes the show on the road.
Weighing in under 7 pounds, the Kilburn is a lightweight piece of vintage styled engineering. Setting the bar as one of the loudest speakers in its class, the Kilburn is a compact, stout-hearted hero with a well-balanced audio which boasts a clear midrange and extended highs for a sound that is both articulate and pronounced. The analogue knobs allow you to fine tune the controls to your personal preferences while the guitar-influenced leather strap enables easy and stylish travel.
What do you get
Sound of Marshall, unplugs the chords, and takes the show on the road.
Weighing in under 7 pounds, the Kilburn is a lightweight piece of vintage styled engineering. Setting the bar as one of the loudest speakers in its class, the Kilburn is a compact, stout-hearted hero with a well-balanced audio which boasts a clear midrange and extended highs for a sound that is both articulate and pronounced. The analogue knobs allow you to fine tune the controls to your personal preferences while the guitar-influenced leather strap enables easy and stylish travel.
The FM radio is perhaps gone for good, the assumption apparently being that the jury has ruled in favor of streaming over the internet. The IR blaster is another feature due for retirement – the S6 had it, then the Note5 didn’t, and now with the S7 the trend is clear.
Perfectly Done
Meanwhile, the IP68 water resistance has improved from the S5, allowing submersion of up to five feet for 30 minutes, plus there’s no annoying flap covering the charging port
- No FM radio (except for T-Mobile units in the US, so far)
- No IR blaster
- No stereo speakers
If you’ve taken the phone for a plunge in the bath, you’ll need to dry the charging port before plugging in. Samsung hasn’t reinvented the wheel with the design of the Galaxy S7, but it didn’t need to. The Gala S6 was an excellently styled device, and the S7 has managed to improve on that. | | |
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